A  gric.- Forestry.   Vi«i»  i  1*^-... 


FARM   FORESTRY 


BY 


JOHN  ARDEN  FERGUSON,  A.M.,  M.F, 


PROFESSOR  OF  FORESTRY  AT  THE 
PENNSYLVANIA    STATE   COLLEGE 


NEW   YORK 
JOHN   WILEY    &   SONS,   INC. 

LONDON:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED 


F45 


Copyright,  1916 

BY 
-JOHN   ARDEN   FERGUSON 

Agri.  -  Forestry  -  Main  Librtwy 


PRESS  OP 

/  BRAUNWORTH   &  CO. 

4/33  PRINTERS    AND    BOOKBINDCR8 

BROOKLYN.    N.  Y. 


To  HER 

WHO   LED   ME  TO 

BELIEVE    IT    POSSIBLE 

TO    WRITE    A    BOOK 

THAT  MIGHT  BE 

OF  SERVICE 


872677 


PREFACE 


THIS  book  is  an  outgrowth  of  lectures  delivered  to  Agri- 
cultural students  on  Farm  Forestry  throughout  several  years. 
It  is  written  for  study  by  students  in  Agricultural  Colleges 
and  in  High  Schools. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  book  the  author  owes  much  to 
the  many  writers  on  subjects  relating  to  the  care  and  manage- 
ment of  the  farm  woodlot  and  the  utilization  of  the  products  of 
the  woodlot.  The  Bulletins  and  Circulars  issued  by  the  United 
States  Forest  Service,  by  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations 
and  by  State  Forestry  Departments  relating  to  these  sub- 
jects, are  full  of  valuable  material  and  are  the  chief  sources 
of  information.  The  aim  has  been  to  bring  together  in  avail- 
able form  ideas  and  principles  already  well  known. 

An  appendix  has  been  added  containing  several  log  tables 
and  volume  tables,  a  basal  area  table,  and  other  information, 
nearly  all  taken  from  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Forest 
Service.  A  simple  method  for  rinding  the  area  of  a  farm 
woodlot  using  the  common  compass  has  been  described,  and 
a  suggestive  list  of  practicum  exercises  such  as  might  be 
included  in  a  course  on  Farm  Forestry.  Photographs  not 
otherwise  acknowledged  were  obtained  from  the  United  States 
Forest  Service. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  the 
following,  all  of  whom  made  valuable  suggestions  and  cor- 
rections in  the  manuscript :  R.  C.  Hawley,  who  read  chapters 
i-n;  H.  H.  Chapman,  who  read  Chapters  11-18,  both  of  the 
Faculty  of  the  Yale  Forest  School;  A.  K.  Chittenden,  Pro- 


vi  PREFACE 

fessor  of  Forestry  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  who 
read  Chapters  i-iS,  and  to  my  associates  on  the  Faculty  of 
the  Department  of  Forestry,  of  The  Pennsylvania  State  Col- 
lege; C.  R.  Anderson,  who  made  many  valuable  suggestions; 
R.  R.  Chaffee,  who  read  Chapters  11-20;  W.  G.  Edwards, 
who  helped  in  the  preparation  of  the  index,  and  G.  R.  Green, 
who  read  and  corrected  the  entire  'manuscript. 

J.  A.  FERGUSON. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  ORIGIN  AND  USES  OF  THE  WOODLOT   ....  ..............       i 

CHAPTER  II 
THE  TREE    ...................................  ...........      IO 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  LIFE  PROCESSES  OF  TREES  AND  THE  NATURAL  FACTORS 

THAT  INFLUENCE  THE  LIFE  OF  TREES  ...................      2O 

CHAPTER  IV 
THE  WOODLOT  ...........................................      2a 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  TREES  IN  THE  WOODLOT  .............. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ESTABLISHING  A  WOODLOT  BY  ARTIFICIAL  MEANS,  EITHER  BY 

SEEDING  OR  PLANTING   ...............................     45 

CHAPTER  VII 
TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS  .....................     56 

CHAPTER  VIII 
TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING  ....................      73 

CHAPTER  IX 
NATURAL  METHODS  OF  STARTING  AND  REPRODUCING  A  WOODLOI     ^ 

CHAPTER  X 
CARING  FOR  THE  GROWING  WOODLOT  .......................    104 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XI 
CARING  FOR  THE  WOODLOT  STARTED  FROM   SPROUTS  AND  THE 

ORDINARY  FARM  WOODLOT   ..........................      1  14 

CHAPTER  XII 
PROTECTION  OF  THE  WOODLOT    ............................    I26 

CHAPTER  XIII 
WOODLOT  MANAGEMENT   ..........................  .  ....... 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT 


CHAPTER  XV 
HARVESTING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT 

CHAPTER  XVI 
MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT 

CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  CONTENTS  OF  LOGS  AND  TREES 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
ESTIMATING  THE  TREES  IN  THE  WOODLOT   FOR  BOARD  FEET  AND 

FOR    CORDWOOD    ....................................... 

CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  DIFFERENT  PROPERTIES  OF  WOODS  ..........  .  .......... 


CHAPTER  XX 

1  HE  USE  OF  PERISHABLE  WOODS  FOR  FENCE  POSTS  ..........  198 

APPENDIX    ...............................................  207 

INDEX    ..................................................  235 


FARM  FORESTALL  ]'' I •,:<?>. ^ 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  ORIGIN  AND  USES  OF  THE  WOODLOT 

BY  the  term  Farm  Woodlot  is  meant  the  tract  of  wooded 
land  which  is  maintained  primarily  to  furnish  fuel,  posts,  lum- 
ber and  other  wood  products  for  use  on  the  farm.  The  term 
is  also  used  to  denote  larger  tracts  of  forest  land  owned  by 
farmers  which  are  cut  from  time  to  time  to  secure  a  revenue. 

Farm  Forestry  treats  of  the  growing  of  forest  trees  in  the 
woodlot  and  with  the  utilization  of  the  products  of  the  wood- 
lot.  It  has  to  do  with  the  starting  of  the  trees  from  seed  or 
from  sprouts,  with  the  tending  of  the  trees  as  they  grow,  s(5 
that  they  will  put  forth  their  best  and  fastest  growth,  and 
with  the  harvesting  and  utilizing  of  the  trees  when  ripe.  It 
aims  to  produce  the  greatest  amount  of  valuable  timber  in  the 
shortest  time  possible.  It  accomplishes  its  purpose  by  growing 
in  the  woodlot  only  fast  growing  kinds  of  trees,  by  growing 
trees  that  will  yield  only  a  useful  and  valuable  product,  by 
giving  to  each  tree  the  right  amount  of  space  it  needs  for 
growth  and  by  protecting  the  trees  from  their  many  enemies. 
Origin  of  the  Farm  Woodlot. — Most  farm  woodlots  have 
descended  directly  from  the  virgin  forest  which  originally 
covered  so  large  a  portion  of  the  country.  This  virgin  forest 
has  disappeared  for  the  most  part  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country.  Only  isolated  patches  of  the  old  timber  remain. 
These  forests  were  cut  to  convert  the  trees  into  lumber  or  to 


2  FAEM  FOEESTRY 

clear  the  land  for  agriculture.  Usually  not  all  the  land  de- 
nuded of  its  trees  to  make  farm  land  could  be  cultivated.  On 
nearly  every  farm  area  there  were  places  here  and  there  where 
the  soil  was  ttob  :Lthin  or  the  land  too  rough  or  stony  or  too 
16V  r&fee*  a1  ^i  arm  crop.  Those  parts  of  the  farm  often 


i   c  c  wejee  cTio<t:t  efitif.ely^derLuded  of  timber  or  if  cleared  were  allowed 
up1  again  "to  forest  trees,  and  so  formed  the  woodlots. 


In  the  older  settled  parts  of  the  country  farm  woodlots  have 
been  cut  over  many  times  and  allowed  to  grow  up  again.  In 
New  England  some  of  the  woodlots  are  said  to  be  in  the 
seventh  generation  from  the  virgin  forest. 

Some  farm  woodlots  have  originated  also  from  the  aban- 
doning of  land  once  tilled.  In  the  early  days  land  would 
sometimes  be  cleared  and  used  for  growing  crops  that  later 
would  be  found  not  suited  for  that  purpose.  Such  lands  were 
abandoned  and  soon  would  grow  up  naturally  to  forest  trees. 
Farm  woodlots  also  originate  by  planting  trees  or  sowing  the 
seed  of  trees.  In  the  central  portions  of  the  country,  on  the 
prairies,  where  trees  do  not  naturally  reproduce  themselves  in 
competition  with  the  heavy  grass,  this  is  commonly  the  origin 
of  the  farm  woodlot. 

Relation  of  Farm  Forestry  to  General  Forestry.  —  Farm 
forestry  is  a  branch  of  the  general  subject  of  forestry.  It  com- 
prises the  principles  of  forestry  that  apply  to  the  management 
of  the  farm  woodlot.  Forestry  in  general  has  to  do  with  the 
management  of  all  forest  land.  Many  are  apt  to  think  of 
forests  as  tracts  of  wooded  land  covering  large  areas,  and  to 
think  of  forestry  as  applicable  only  to  such  extensive  areas. 
Yet  a  woodlot  is  forested  land  and  the  fundamental  principles 
o'f  forestry  that  apply  to  a  large  timber  tract,  such  as  a  Na- 
tional or  a  State  Forest,  apply  equally  well  to  the  farm  wood- 
lot.  There  is  no  owner  of  forest  land  who  is  better  able  to 
practice  forestry  than  the  farmer  on  his  woodlot.  He  has  the 
time  to  devote  to  the  work  in  the  winter  and  his  efforts  will 
cost  him  nothing.  The  principles  of  forestry  as  they  apply  to 


THE  ORIGIN  AND  USES  OF  THE  WOODLOT  3 

the  woodlot  are  easily  learned  and  are  simple  in  application. 
One  who  understands  the  principles  of  growing  and  caring  for 
agricultural  crops  can  readily  comprehend  the  principles  of 
growing  forest  crops. 

Agriculture  and  Forestry. — Forestry  does  not  differ  widely 
from  agriculture  in  its  general  purpose.  They  both  have  to 
do  with  the  growing  of  crops  from  the  soil.  The  essential  dif- 
ference is  in  the  kind  of  crop  and  in  the  time  it  takes  to  mature 
it.  Forestry  has  often  been  defined  as  the  branch  of  agricul- 
ture that  has  to  do  with  the  growing  of  crops  of  forest  trees. 
Forestry  and  agriculture  both  deal  with  the  establishing,  tend- 
ing and  harvesting  of  crops.  With  agriculture  these  three 
operations  are  usually  accomplished  in  the  same  season  or  year. 
With  forestry  many  years  must  elapse  between  the  time  the 
crops  of  trees  are  established  and  when  they  are  ripe  for  the 
ax.  The  same  laws  of  nature  however  are  relied  on  to  grow 
both  kinds  of  crops. 

Like  agriculture,  forestry  can  do  nothing  more  than  to  bring 
about  the  best  conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  crop.  It  is 
impossible  to  make  farm  crops  or  trees  grow  faster  than 
nature  has  determined  they  shall  grow.  All  the  farmer  ac- 
complishes by  his  careful  tilling  and  preparation  of  the  soil 
is  to  bring  about  the  best  conditions  he  can  for  the  reception 
and  germination  of  the  seed  and  the  development  of  the  crop. 
Forestry  aims  to  aid  nature  by  giving  to  each  tree  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  its  best  development. 

An  intimate  relation  exists  between  forestry  and  agricul- 
ture in  the  use  of  the  soil.  If  all  the  land  on  the  farm  were 
fertile  there  would  be  little  need  for  farm  forestry.  Usually 
some  portions  of  the  land  will  be  too  poor  to  grow  farm  crops. 
Forestry  has  to  do  with  the  utilization  of  such  poor  land.  It 
alms  to  grow  a  crop  of  forest  trees  where  it  is  impossible 
to  utilize  the  land  for  other  and  more  valuable  farm  purposes. 
Forestry  and  agriculture  thus  go  hand  in  hand  in  the  use  of 
all  the  land  on  the  farm.  Agriculture  is  interested  in  the  use 


4  FARM  FORESTRY 

of  the  fertile  soil  for  the  growing  of  valuable  farm  crops. 
Forestry  concerns  itself  with  the  use  of  the  poor  soil  on  which 
the  only  profitable  crop  is  forest  trees. 

The  Value  of  the  Farm  Woodlot  to  the  Country. — The  area 
of  woodlot  and  idle  land  in  the  country  owned  by  farmers  is 
very  large.  It  was  estimated  in  1915  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  to  be  not  less  than  200,000,000 
acres.  This  is  an  area  larger  than  all  the  National  and  State 
Forests.  It  is  larger  than  the  states  of  Minnesota,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin  and  Maine.  The  proper  use  of  this  vast  aggregate 
area  is  of  considerable  importance  not  only  to  the  owners  but 
also  to  the  country.  It  is  probable  that  this  area  may  be  some- 
what reduced  in  future  years.  East  of  the  Mississippi  River 
two-thirds  of  the  farm  woodlots  lie  in  the  South,  where  much 
of  the  land  at  present  timbered  will  eventually  be  cleared  for 
farm  purposes  as  the  country  becomes  more  thickly  settled. 
In  the  older  settled  regions  probably  the  greater  part  of  the 
fertile  land  is  already  being  utilized  for  growing  farm  crops. 
The  woodlot  land  and  the  farm  land  are  there  pretty 
definitely  settled.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  poorer  land 
now  being  tilled  may  gradually  be  abandoned  as  it  is  found  to 
be  more  valuable  for  growing  trees  than  for  agricultural  crops. 
It  will  be  many  years  before  the  land  suited  for  agriculture 
and  that  suited  for  forestry  will  be  definitely  determined.  In 
spite  of  changes  that  may  occur  the  area  in  farm  woodlots  in 
the  country  will  always  be  large  and  the  production  of  timber 
on  this  area  will  be  of  great  economic  importance.  It  should 
be  used  so  as  to  contribute  to  the  national  wealth  and  prosper- 
ity. The  productive  capacity  of  the  200,000,000  acres  of  farm 
woodlots  is  enormous.  It  is  estimated  that  if  only  fairly  well 
stocked  with  forest  trees,  that  is  about  3000  board  feet  to  the 
acre,  the  annual  growth  under  forest  practice  would  more  than 
equal  the  annual  lumber  cut  of  the  entire  country,  which  is 
about  40  billion  board  feet.  In  other  words  the  present  area 
of  farm  woodlots  under  proper  care  and  forest  management 


THE  ORIGIN  AND  USES  OF  THE  WOODLOT  5 

could  supply  the  country  indefinitely  with  lumber.  The 
present  stand  of  timber  on  these  woodlots  is  very  large.  It  is 
estimated  to  exceed  250  billion  board  feet  of  saw  timber  and 
\y2  billion  cords  of  cordwood.  It  is  because  of  the  great  value 
of  the  farm  woodlot  to  the  nation  as  well  as  to  the  individual 
farmer  that  'the  woodlot  problem  is  of  importance. 

Value  of  the  Woodlot  to  the  Farm.-— A  well  stocked 
thrifty  woodlot  enhances  the  value  of  the  farm  property. 
Instances  are  not  rare  where  farms  have  been  purchased  and 
the  sale  of  the  products  from  the  woodlot  when  cleared  have 
more  than  covered  the  cost  of  the  farm.  The  woodlot  serves 
as  a  reserve  fund  on  which  the  owner  of  the  farm  can  call 
at  any  time  for  financial  backing.  The  purchase  of  fuel  wood, 
posts  and  other  products  means  the  throwing  away  of  profits 
on  these  necessary  articles.  In  addition  to  this  is  the  effort 
and  expense  of  hauling  the  material  an  increased  distance. 
Grown  in  the  farm  woodlot  this  material  would  cost  nothing 
except  the  annual  taxes  and  the  interest  charges  together 
with  the  actual  cost  of  getting  the  products  out  of  the  woodlot. 
The  profits  would  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  owner. 

Woodlots  on  Fertile  Soil. — Where  woodlots  are  grown  on 
fertile  soil  the  point  is  soon  reached  where  it  may  be  more 
profitable  to  do  away  with  the  woodlot  and  purchase  wood 
supplies  than  to  maintain  the  woodlot.  But  if  the  woodlot  is 
increasing  at  the  rate  of  one  and  a  half  to  two  cords  per  acre 
per  year,  which  will  be  possible  on  fertile  soil  with  well  stocked 
woodlots  of  thrifty  and  fast  growing  trees,  it  often  will 
be  more  profitable  to  maintain  the  woodlot  on  fertile  soil  than 
to  grow  an  ordinary  farm  crop.  In  the  central  western  states 
where  trees  are  not  plentiful  and  fence  posts  must  be  brought 
long  distances  at  considerable  expense  for  freight,  plantations 
of  trees  for  growing  fenceposts  have  often  been  found  to 
yield  a  higher  annual  profit  than  the  same  kind  of  land  de- 
voted to  raising  farm  crops.  As  a  rule  the  woodlot  occupies 
the  poor  soil  on  the  farm,  and  on  such  soil  the  only  profitable 


6  FARM  FORESTRY 

crop  is  forest  trees.  On  such  situations  the  only  thing  that 
would  compete  with  the  woodlot  would  be  grazing.  Even 
where  more  might  be  made  out  of  the  soil  in  other  ways,  the 
convenience  of  having  wood  material  at  hand  whenever  needed 
is  worth  something  to  the  farmer.  The  fact  that  a  well  stocked 
woodlot  is  a  valuable  asset  that  is  readily  turned  into  -money 
or  on  which  money  can  be  borrowed  in  case  of  necessity,  will 
often  outweigh  other  considerations  in  the  confidence  it  gives 
the  owner. 

The  Size  and  Location  of  the  Woodlot. — The  size  and  lo- 
cation of  the  woodlot  will  depend  on  several  factors  such  as 
the  home  need  of  the  farm,  the  character  of  the  land,  and  the 
m'arket  for  the  material  from  the  woodlot.  Most  farm  wood- 
lots  are  the  result  of  the  clearing  of  the  land  for  farm  purposes. 
As  the  land  was  needed  for  field  crops  the  forest  was  gradually 
pushed  back  until  the  present  farm  woodlots  have  resulted. 
So  there  is  rarely  a  definite  relation  between  the  size  of  the 
farm  and  the  size  of  the  woodlot.  The  woodlot  is  not  the 
result  of  planning  and  calculation  and  is  not  the  result  of  the 
study  of  the  wood  needs  of  the  farm.  Usually  the  woodlot 
occupies  the  poorest  land  on  the  farm  and  is  large  or  small 
according  to  the  amount  of  such  land.  It  is  held  by  many 
that  one-eighth  of  the  farm  should  be  in  woodlot,  which  should 
supply  the  farm  with  all  wood  products  needed  and  also  fur- 
nish some  products  for  sale  to  help  pay  for  taxes,  interest  and 
protection.  While  such  an  area  of  wooded  land  might  be 
sufficient  for  some  farms,  for  others  it  might  be  too  large  or 
too  small.  Because  of  the  great  variation  in  the  rate  of  growth 
in  trees  on  different  soils  and  situations,  the  area  of  woodlot 
that  will  just  supply  the  right  amount  of  material  would  have 
to  be  determined  for  each  farm. 

There  is  no  definite  relation  between  the  location  of  the  farm 
woodlot  and  the  farm  buildings  and  fields.  It  is  usually  located 
wherever  the  soil  is  too  poor  for  cultivation.  When  the  wood- 
lot  is  on  good  soil,  it  will  usually  be  found  located  at  some 


THE  ORIGIN  AND  USES  OF  THE  WOODLOT  7 

distance  from  the  homestead.  The  area  lying  immediately 
around  the  home  and  the  barn  would  be  the  first  to  be  cleared 
and  the  woodlot  would  usually  occupy  the  land  farther  away. 
Where  woodlots  are  in  the  nature  of  windbreaks  or  shelter- 
belts  there  is  a  definite  relation  of  position  in  reference  to  the 
buildings,  pastures,  fields  or  orchards  that  are  to  be  protected. 
This  position  will  vary  in  different  portions  of  the  country  de- 
pending on  the  direction  of  the  cold  or  drying  winds,  the 
shelter  belts  being  placed  to  windward  of  the  area  to  be  pro- 
tected. 

THE  USES  OF  THE  FARM   WOODLOT 

The  Production  of  Wood  Material  for  Farm  Use.— The 
woodlot  should  furnish  each  year  all  the  wood  needed  on  the 
farm.  It  should  provide  fuelwood,  fenceposts,  poles,  stakes 
and  lumber  for  repairing  buildings. 

The  Production  of  a  Revenue. — The  woodlot  should  bring 
in  an  income  each  year.  Besides  furnishing  wood  material 
for  use  on  the  farm  it  should  pay  for  taxes,  interest  on  the 
investment,  and  other  expenses  of  the  woodlot,  by  growing 
some  products  for  sale  as  sawlogs,  ties,  poles,  firewood  or 
posts.  Idle  land  should  be  planted  to  forest  trees.  No  land 
on  the  farm  should  be  unprofitable. 

Utilization  of  Teams  and  Help  in  Winter. — A  good  sized 
woodlot  will  furnish  work  for  both  teams  and  help  in  winter 
when  it  is  often  a  problem  to  know  how  to  employ  them  profit- 
ably. Farming  and  lumbering  make  a  good  combination,  the 
,  one  utilizing  the  teams  and  help  when  work  is  slack  with  the 
other.  It  is  easier  to  secure  and  keep  good  help  when  there 
is  work  the  year  round. 

Windbreaks  and  Shelterbelts  for  Protection. — Woodlots 
often  take  the  form  of  windbreaks  or  shelterbelts  for  protect- 
ing the  farmstead,  the  growing  crops  or  the  stock  from  the 
wind.  On  the  great  plains  some  protection  from  the  wind  is 
necessary.  Trees  are  planted  to  windward  of  the  area  to  be 
protected  either  in  a  single  row  or  in  two  or  more  rows.  Be- 


8  FARM  FORESTRY 

sides  shelter  they  may  furnish  fuel,  posts  and  other  wood  sup- 
plies to  the  farm.  Woodlots  are  often  used  to  furnish  pro- 
tection to  stock  from  the  hot  sun  in  summer  and  the  cold  winds 
of  winter. 

Protection  of  the  Water  Supply  and  to  Prevent  Erosion  to 
the  Soil. — Trees  by  their  dense  crowns  protect  the  soil  from 
the  hot  sun's  rays  and  from  winds  and  are  often  the  direct 
cause  of  the  presence  of  springs.  The  removal  of  trees  around 
a  spring  has  often  been  known  to  dry  up  the  spring.  The  roots 
of  trees  spreading  in  all  directions  serve  to  prevent  the  soil 
from  being  washed  away  by  rain  or  floods  in  spring.  Erosion 
can  often  be  stopped  by  planting  trees.  Woodlots  are  often 
maintained  on  land  adapted  to  agricultural  crops  because  of  the 
danger  from  erosion. 

As  a  Sugar  Bush. — In  the  North  East  where  the  hard  maple 
forms  a  large  part  of  the  woods,  woodlots  are  often  maintained 
for  the  production  of  maple  sugar.  The  tapping  of  the  trees 
does  not  injure  the  wood  for  lumber  or  any  other  purpose.  A 
considerable  revenue  results  from  a  well  stocked  sugar  bush. 

As  a  Reserve  Fund. — A  well  stocked  woodlot  is  in  the 
nature  of  a  reserve  fund  on  which  the  owner  can  draw  at  any 
time.  It  furnishes  a  basis  for  borrowing  money  when  needed 
or  it  can  readily  be  turned  into  cash  by  cutting  the  trees  and 
converting  them  into  lumber. 

For  Rejuvenating  Wornout  Land. — In  some  regions,  es- 
pecially in  the  South,  wornout  land  is  allowed  to  grow  up  to 
forest  trees.  After  the  trees  have  grown  to  pole  size  the  soil 
will  be  found  to  be  fertile  again  and  can  be  tilled  after  the  trees 
have  been  cut.  A  woodlot  if  properly  handled  benefits  and 
enriches  the  soil  by  the  accumulation  of  leaves  and  twigs 
which  decay  and  add  fertility. 

As  Game  Preserves. — Woodlots  are  the  breeding  places  of 
many  birds  that  help  to  keep  down  destructive  insects.  The 
cause  of  the  great  increase  in  insects  and  the  damage  they 
do  is  said  to  be  the  killing  of  the  birds. 


I 


A  woodlot  of  white  pine  twenty-two  years  old  started  artificially  by 
planting  small  trees. 


THE  ORIGIN  AND  USES  OF  THE  WOODLOT  9 

To  Temper  the  Climate.— A  woodlot  has  an  influence  lo- 
cally on  the  climate.  The  air  in  the  woodlot  is  cooler  in  summer 
and  warmer  in  winter  than  that  outside.  It  is  also  warmer  at 
night  and  cooler  in  the  daytime.  These  differences  in  tem- 
perature have  a  tendency  to  set  up  local  breezes  that  help  to 
moderate  the  extremes  of  weather.  More  rain  falls  in  a 
wooded  region  than  in  one  not  wooded. 

Woodlot s  Have  an  Esthetic  Value. — The  esthetic  value  of 
woodlots  is  hard  to  measure.  A  wooded  region  is  more  pleas- 
ing to  the  eye  than  one  without  trees.  There  will  be  a  greater 
demand  for  farms  where  woodlots  are  cared  for  and  this  will 
have  an  effect  on  the  value  of  the  farm.  Well  cultivated  fields, 
thrifty  woodlots  and  good  roads  make  the  country  side  at- 
tractive. A  well  kept  woodlot  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of 
farm  property  because  of  its  appearance  setting  off  the  growing 
crops.  A  farm  should  be  made  attractive  and  pleasant  so  that 
anyone  would  enjoy  living  on  it. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  TREE 

IN  order  to  manage  a  woodlot  intelligently  and  successfully 
it  is  necessary  first  to  know  something  about  the  life  and 
structure  of  trees,  and  also  to  understand  something  of  the 
factors  that  influence  their  growth  and  development. 

Trees  are  living  organisms,  that  is,  they  carry  on  certain 
life  processes  such  as  breathing,  transpiration,  digestion  and 
assimilation  of  food  material.  They  are  the  highest  type 
of  vegetation  found  on  the  earth,  that  is,  they  have  the  most 
complex  structure  and  life  history  of  any  plant  growth.  Trees 
differ  from  herbs  in  having  woody  structure  and  perennial  life 
and  from  shrubs  in  developing  single  stems  that  elevate  the 
crowns  above  other  forms  of  vegetation. 

THE  PARTS  OF  A  TREE  AND  THEIR  USES 

The  Roots. — A  tree  is  made  up  of  three  main  parts — roots, 
stem  and  crown.  The  root  system  of  a  tree  is  composed  of 
larger  and  smaller  roots,  each  serving  a  definite  purpose. 
They  may  be  compared  in  form  to  the  large  and  small  branches 
in  the  crown.  The  large  roots  tend  to  hold  the  tree  firmly  in 
the  ground  and  prevent  its  being  blown  over  by  the  wind. 
They  conduct  water  and  salts  absorbed  from  the  soil  by  the 
smaller  roots.  These  substances  are  absorbed  by  root  hairs 
that  grow  near  the  ends  of  the  roots.  As  the  roots  grow  and 
force  their  way  through  the  soil  the  root  hairs  die  and  are 
replaced  by  new  ones  formed  nearer  the  tips  of  the  growing 
roots.  It  is  through  these  small  root  hairs,  far  out  from  the 
stem  of  a  tree,  often  beyond  the  ends  of  the  branches,  that  a 
tree  takes  in  most  of  its  food  from  the  soil. 

10 


A  pine  woodlot  used  for  wood  and  for  shelter. 


THE  TREE  11 

The  form  of  the  root  system  varies  with  different  species 
of  trees.  Some  trees,  like  most  of  the  oaks,  the  hickory  and 
walnut,  develop  a  tap  root  or  single  main  root  that  grows 
down  deep  into  the  soil.  Such  trees  are  naturally  wind  firm. 
They  are  practically  never  uprooted.  They  will  be  broken  off 
above  ground  before  they  will  be  blown  over.  With  many 
other  trees  like  the  spruce  and  birch,  the  roots  tend  to  spread 
out  laterally  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil.  Such  trees  not 
having  a  firm  hold  on  the  ground  are  not  windfirm.  A  third 
form  of  root  system  is  where  several  strong  lateral  roots 
extend  down  obliquely  deep  into  the  soil  like  the  maple  and 
beech.  These  are  fairly  windfirm  trees.  The  degree  of  wind- 
firmness  varies  in  the  same  kind  of  tree  according  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  tree  is  grown.  Trees  in  the  open  are 
rarely  seen  uprooted  no  matter  what  kind  of  a  root  system  is 
naturally  developed.  A  tree  is  able  to  strengthen  its  root  system 
to  withstand  the  wind.  Where  trees  grow  closely  together  in 
the  forest  they  rely  on  each  other  for  protection.  Each  tree 
helps  to  hold  the  others  up  by  preventing  the  wind  from  blow- 
ing the  tree  over  too  far.  Strong  root  systems  are  not  devel- 
oped. If  such  trees  are  thinned  out  suddenly,  many  of  the 
trees  being  removed,  so  that  those  left  are  deprived  of  their 
former  support,  they  will  be  apt  to  be  blown  over  easily.  If 
such  trees  are  thinned  out  through  a  series  of  years,  the  support 
given  by  neighboring  trees  being  gradually  removed,  the  trees 
left  will  thicken  and  strengthen  their  root  systems  and  become 
more  and  more  wind  firm,  until  finally  they  will  be  able  to 
stand  alone  in  the  heaviest  winds. 

A  few  trees  will  adapt  their  form  of  root  system  to  the  con- 
ditions of  the  soil  on  which  they  grow.  With  a  deep  soil  a 
deeply  penetrating  root  system  is  produced,  while  in  more 
shallow  soil  a  more  spreading  root  system  is  formed.  This 
is  true  of  but  few  trees.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  unless 
the  soil  is  deep  enough  for  the  development  of  the  character- 
istic form  of  root  system,  the  growth  of  the  tree  will  be  slow 


12  FARM  FORESTRY 

and  its  form  more  or  less  irregular  or  stunted.  The  root 
systems  of  trees  can  be  studied  on  those  upturned  by  the 
wind. 

The  Trunk,  Stem  or  Bole. — The  trunk  of  the  tree  sup- 
ports and  elevates  the  crown.  It  conveys  water  and  salts  ab- 
sorbed by  the  roots  to  the  crown  and  serves  as  a  store  house 
for  reserve  food  materials.  The  food  manufactured  by  the 
leaves  in  any  year  is  not  always  completely  used  up  in  that 
year  for  the  growth  of  the  tree  or  the  ripening  of  fruit. 
Usually  more  food  is  made  than  is  needed.  This  excess  of 
food  is  stored  in  the  tree  over  winter  for  use  in  the  spring. 
Seed  years  are  brought  about  by  the  gradual  accumulation  of 
reserve  food  materials  in  the  tree. 

From  an  economic  standpoint  the  stem  is  the  most  valuable 
portion  of  a  woodlot  tree.  On  its  size  and  shape  depend  the 
amount  and  kinds  of  wood  products  such  as  lumber,  cordwood 
and  posts  that  can  be  obtained. 

Each  species  of  tree  has  its  characteristic  form  of  stem. 
Some  trees  produce  naturally  a  long,  cylindrical  stem  free  of 
branches,  while  others  develop  a  short,  tapering  stem  more  or 
less  branched  or  crooked.  Trees  grown  in  the  open  usually 
branch  low  down  forming  a  thick,  short  trunk.  The  same 
kinds  of  trees  grown  in  the  forest  produce  long,  cylindrical 
trunks  often  free  of  branches  for  many  feet.  The  bark  cover- 
ing the  stem  is  also  characteristic  of  each  species  of  tree  in 
markings,  thickness  and  color.  It  serves  as  a  protection 
against  cold,  heat,  mechanical  injury  and  the  entrance  of 
insects  and  disease.  It  is  impervious  to  the  passage  of  liquids 
and  so  prevents  the  sap  leaving  the  tree  freely  through  the 
branches  or  stem. 

The  Crown. — The  crown  is  usually  the  most  conspicuous 
part  of  the  tree.  It  is  composed  of  branches  and  leaves  to- 
gether with  buds,  flowers  and  fruit.  Many  life  processes  are 
carried  on  in  the  crown.  By  their  almost  endless  divisions 
the  branches  enable  the  tree  to  present  a  large  extent  of  leaf 


THE  TREE  13 

surface  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  air.  Unlike  the  roots 
the  branches  have  a  more  or  less  regular  arrangement. 

Each  species  of  tree  has  its  characteristic  form  of  crown 
and  habit  of  branching.  In  the  open  the  kind  of  tree  can  often 
be  told  from  the  distance  by  the  form  of  crown,  as  elm  by  its 
vase  shaped  crown,  maple  by  its  oval  crown,  spruce  by  its 
conical  crown.  The  form  of  crown  produced  by  a  tree  in  the 
woods  differs  from  the  form  of  crown  produced  by  the  same 
kind  of  tree  grown  in  the  open.  This  is  due  to  crowding  by 
neighboring  trees,  which  restricts  lateral  development.  The 
form  of  crown  developed  under  forest  conditions  is  as  charac- 
teristic of  the  species  as  the  form  in  the  open.  The  form  of  the 
crown  varies  also  with  the  age  of  the  tree.  Trees  in  early  life 
have  a  more  or  less  conically  shaped  crown  due  to  rapid  height 
growth.  In  old  age  the  crown  widens  out  and  forms  a  flat  or 
rounded  top.  There  is  an  intimate  relation  between  the  size 
of  the  crown  and  the  extent  of  the  root  system.  If  for  any  rea- 
son the  one  is  not  allowed  its  full  development  it  will  have  a 
corresponding  effect  on  the  other  portion.  This  does  not  mean 
that  there  is  a  definite  connection  between  a  particular  root  and 
a  certain  branch.  It  is  not  true  that  when  a  root  is  cut  off  a 
branch  fed  by  that  root  dies.  Neither  is  it  true  that  the  roots 
on  one  side  of  a  tree  feed  only  the  corresponding  side  of  the 
crown,  and  that  by  fertilizing  the  ground  on  one  side  of  a  tree 
the  crown  can  be  made  to  extend  in  that  direction.  All  the 
roots  of  a  tree  help  to  obtain  water  and  salts  from  the  soil  for 
the  use  of  the  entire  tree. 

The  leaves  may  be  said  to  be  the  lungs  and  stomach  of  the 
tree.  In  them  are  carried  on  respiration,  transpiration,  absorp- 
tion of  food  from  the  air  and  the  manufacture  of  food  mate- 
rials. The  shape  and  size  of  leaves  vary  in  different  trees, 
each  kind  of  tree  having  a  different  form.  They  vary  from  the 
broad,  flat  leaves  of  hardwoods  to  the  long,  needlelike  leaves 
of  conifers  or  evergreen  trees.  Even  on  the  same  tree  there 
is  considerable  variation  in  the  shape  and  size  of  leaves. 


14  FARM  FORESTRY 

Trees  that  shed  their  leaves  in  the  fall  as  do  most  hard- 
wood or  broadleaf  trees  are  called  deciduous  trees.  Those  that 
hold  their  leaves  over  winter  as  do  most  coniferous  trees  like 
the  pine,  spruce  and  hemlock,  are  called  evergreen  trees.  Some 
evergreen  trees  retain  their  leaves  for  two  years,  others  for 
three  or  four  years  and  others  for  longer  periods.  Evergreen 
trees  shed  one  year's  growth,  the  oldest,  every  year.  There 
are  many  evergreen  broadleaf  trees  like  the  live  oak  and  holly 
and  also  several  deciduous  conifers  like  the  larch  and  bald 
cypress.  The  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  twigs  is  such  that 
the  leaves  will  receive  the  greatest  amount  of  sunlight.  In 
some  trees  the  leaves  are  alternate  on  the  twigs,  in  others  in 
pairs  on  opposite  sides  of  the  twigs,  each  successive  pair 
alternating  in  its  position  on  the  twig  with  the  pair  above.  In 
many  species  the  leaves  are  arranged  in  whorls. 

The  winter  period  is  the  rest  period  in  the  life  of  trees. 
Growth  practically  ceases  in  the  early  fall.  Trees  during  the 
winter  period  are  in  a  dormant  condition,  but  many  of  the 
life  processes  including  respiration  and  transpiration  take 
place  the  same  as  in  summer,  only  in  a  much  less  active 
manner. 

The  Buds. — Buds  contain  the  embryo  of  the  next  year's 
twigs,  leaves  or  flowers.  They  have  regular  arrangement  on 
the  stem  like  the  leaves.  Buds  are  formed  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  season's  growth  after  the  leaves  have  matured  and  the 
new  twigs  have  about  finished  their  growth.  They  are  covered 
with  layers  of  scales  for  protecting  the  growing  parts  from  the 
cold  and  drying  winds  of  winter.  Buds  are  either  terminal 
or  lateral.  The  terminal  buds,  when  present,  are  for  the  pur- 
pose of  prolonging  the  branch  the  following  spring.  Lateral 
buds  occur  in  the  axils  of  the  leaf  stalks.  Some  of  them  pro- 
duce leaves  in  the  spring  and  others  produce  flowers.  Flower 
buds  can  often  be  distinguished  by  their  larger  size  and  form. 
Adventitious  buds  are  formed  under  certain  conditions  from 
the  young,  living  wood  of  trees.  When  a  tree  is  cut  the  sprouts 


European  larch  grown  in  the  open  with  room  for  the  development  of 
the  branches.     Short  trunks  and  wide  spreading  crowns  result. 


European  larch  plantation.  The  crowded  stand  has  prevented  the 
development  of  the  side  branches.  Rapid  height  growth  results 
with  long  trunks  and  narrow  crowns. 


THE    TREE  15 

that  grow  from  the  stump  arise  from  adventitious  buds.  They 
also  give  rise  to  the  branches  that  start  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree 
when  it  has  been  opened  up  to  the  light  by  the  removal  of 
other  trees  or  by  pruning.  Dormant  buds  are  buds  that  do 
not  develop  immediately  after  being  formed.  They  lie  just 
beneath  the  bark  and  may  wait  many  years  before  starting  to 
grow. 

The  Flowers  of  Trees. — Trees  have  flowers  the  same  as 
other  plants  that  produce  seed.  Usually  they  are  small  and 
inconspicuous  and  so  are  rarely  observed.  Some  forest  trees 
are  grown  as  ornamental  trees  because  of  their  beautiful  blos- 
soms as  the  locust,  the  catalpa,  the  tulip,  the  black  cherry  and 
horse  chestnut.  Flowers  on  trees  give  rise  to  the  fruit  or  seed 
by  the  process  of  pollinization  the  same  as  with  flowering 
plants.  In  some  trees  as  with  the  black  cherry  the  flowers  are 
perfect,  that  is,  both  pistils  and  stamens  occur  in  the  same 
flower.  Some  trees  like  the  pines,  chestnut,  and  oaks  have 
the  pistillate  and  staminate  portions  in  separate  flowers  but 
both  kinds  of  flowers  on  the  same  tree.  Still  others  like 
the  cotton  wood,  tree  of  heaven,  ashes  and  willows  have  these 
flowers  on  different  trees. 

Fruit  and  Seed. — The  fruit  and  seed  are  the  result  of  the 
fertilization  and  maturing  of  the  pistillate  flowers.  Fruit  and 
seed  vary  greatly  in  form  and  size  on  different  kinds  of  trees. 
Some  seed  is  very  small  and  light  and  is  easily  blown  about  by 
the  wind  such  as  poplar  and  willow  seed,  while  other  seeds 
are  large  and  heavy  like  the  walnut  and  hickory.  Some  seed 
has  a  fleshy  covering  like  cherry,  hackberry  and  cedar  which 
are  eaten  and  scattered  by  birds. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF  TREES   ACCORDING   TO   SIZE 

On  a  basis  of  size  trees  are  often  divided  into : 

a.  Seedlings — young  trees  up  to  4  feet  in  height. 

b.  Small  saplings— trees  from  4  feet  to  10  feet  in  height. 


16  FARM  FORESTRY 

c.  Large  saplings — trees   from    10   feet  in  height  until 

they  have  reached  a  diameter  of  4  inches  4^  feet 
from  the  ground. 

d.  Small  poles — trees  from  4  to  8  inches  in  diameter. 

e.  Large  poles — trees  from  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter. 
/.   Standards — trees  from  i  to  2  feet  in  diameter/ 

g.  Veterans — trees  over  2  feet  in  diameter. 

The  Structure  of  Wood. — The  roots,  branches  and  stems 
of  trees  are  composed  of  wood.  The  structure  of  wood  is  not 
simple  like  iron  or  gold,  but  like  all  organic  material  it  is  made 
up  of  minute  cells.  These  are  somewhat  similar  in  appearance 
in  cross  section  to  the  cells  in  honeycomb  though  many  times 
smaller.  Usually  they  cannot  be  distinguished  without  the  aid 
of  the  magnifying  glass.  The  walls  of  these  cells  are  made  up 
of  cellulose  which  is  composed  largely  of  carbon.  In  the  living 
state  these  cells  are  filled  with  a  living  substance  called  proto- 
plasm. The  cells  are  not  all  alike  in  wTood  even  in  the  same- 
kind  of  tree,  but  differ  in  form  and  size  and  in  the  thickness  of 
cell  walls.  They  also  differ  in  their  uses.  Some  cells  conduct 
food  material  to  or  from  the  crown,  some  store  away  reserve 
food  material  until  it  is  needed  by  the  tree,  some  serve  simply 
to  give  strength  to  the  woody  tissue,  while  others  have  the 
power  of  division  into  two  or  more  cells  and  so  produce  growth 
in  trees.  Water  forms  a  large  part  of  the  wood  of  a  growing 
tree.  Over  half  the  weight  will  be  composed  of  water  chem- 
ically combined,  and  in  addition  to  this  the  tree  will  contain 
from  forty  to  sixty-five  per  cent  of  its  dry  weight  of  free 
water.  This  free  water  largely  evaporates  when  a  tree  is 
cut,  so  that  dry  wood  is  much  lighter  in  weight  than  green 
wood.  Well  seasoned  wood  contains  from  ten  to  twelve  per 
cent  of  free  water. 

The  Parts  of  the  Stem  of  a  Tree.— If  the  top  of  the  stump 
of  a  recently  cut  oak  tree  is  examined,  it  will  be  found  to  be 
made  up  of  several  parts.  Around  the  outside  will  be  ob- 


THE  TREE  17 

served  the  bark.  This  is  in  two  layers,  an  outer  protective 
corky  layer  and  an  inner,  light  colored,  softer  layer  sometimes 
called  the  bast.  Inside  the  bark  is  a  narrow,  light  colored  por- 
tion of  wood  called  the  sapwood,  and  inside  this  extending  to 
the  center  of  the  tree,  a  darker  portion  called  the  heartwood. 
In  the  center  'of  the  tree  in  some  species  will  be  found  the 
pith.  Running  from  the  bark  toward  the  center  of  the  tree 
narrow  lines  of  woody  tissue  will  be  seen,  some  extending  even 
to  the  pith.  These  are  the  pith  rays  or  medullary  rays.  In 
some  trees  like  the  oak,  beech  and  sycamore  the  pith  rays  are 
very  conspicuous.  They  give  the  silver  grain  to  a  board 
when  quarter  sawed.  They  carry  food  from  the  bark  to  the 
inner  living  portions  of  the  tree,  store  reserve  food  material 
and  form  a  means  of  communication  with  the  air.  They  are 
present  in  great  numbers  in  all  kinds  of  wood,  thousands  oc- 
curing  to  the  square  inch,  though  often  so  small  as  to  be  in- 
visible without  a  strong  magnifying  glass.  In  some  species 
as  in  birch  and  cherry  their  terminations  in  the  bark  are  often 
conspicuously  marked  by  rough  spots  called  lenticles. 

Between  the  bark  and  the  sapwood  is  a  layer  of  active  living 
cells,  capable  of  division  into  other  cells.  This  is  called  the 
cambium  layer.  It  is  by  the  division  of  the  cells  in  the  cambium 
layer  that  the  trunk  of  a  tree  grows  in  diameter  and  the 
branches  and  roots  become  larger.  When  first  formed  from 
the  cambium  layer  the  cells  are  filled  with  protoplasm  and  re- 
main alive  as  long  as  they  are  in  the  sapwood.  In  young  trees 
•all  the  wood  is  sapwood.  In  time,  varying  in  length  with 
different  species,  this  sapwood  begins  to  change  to  heartwood. 
The  cells  lose  the  living  protoplasm,  become  darker  in  color, 
and  the  cell  walls  harder.  They  no  longer  conduct  food 
material  to  the  crown.  Heartwood  is  dead  wood.  It  serves 
no  purpose  in  the  life  of  the  tree  except  to  give  strength  and 
rigidity  to  the  stem.  There  is  no  definite  age  at  which  sap- 
wood  changes  to  heartwrood.  It  is  a  more  or  less  irregular 
process. 


18  FARM  FORESTRY 

The  outer  layers  of  a  tree  thus  form  a  shell  of  living  tissue 
over  the  dead  inner  portions  of  the  roots,  stem  and  branches. 
Often  trees  are  seen  growing  vigorously  with  a  hollow  trunk, 
showing  that  the  central  portion  of  the  tree  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  life  of  the  tree. 

DIAMETER  GROWTH  IN  TREES 

Annual  Rings. — A  careful  examination  of  the  bark,  sap- 
wood  and  heartwood  will  show  each  to  be  made  up  of  layers 
or  concentric  rings,  one  of  which  is  produced  each  year.  It  is 
possible  to  tell  the  age  of  a  tree  by  counting  the  rings  in  the 
wood.  During  the  spring  and  early  summer  the  cells  in  the 
cambium  layer  divide  and  produce  new  cells.  Wood  cells  are 
produced  on  the  inside  of  the  cambium  layer  and  bark  cells 
on  the  outside.  The  amount  of  bark  produced  is  usually  much 
less  than  the  amount  of  wood  tissue.  Over  the  whole  tree — 
roots,  trunk  and  branches — is  thus  added  each  year  a  new 
layer  of  wood  and  bark. 

Spring  and  Summer  Wood. — If  an  annual  ring  of  oak 
wood  is  examined  it  will  be  found  to  be  made  up  of  two  layers, 
a  soft,  open,  lighter  colored  layer,  the  spring  wood,  and  a  dense, 
hard,  darker  colored  layer,  the  summer  wood.  In  the  spring 
of  the  year  a  large  amount  of  water  is  needed  by  most  trees 
to  produce  the  new  leaves  and  to  supply  the  growing  parts  of 
the  tree.  As  a  result  the  cells  produced  in  the  early  part  of 
the  growing  season  are  large  with  thin  walls.  As  soon  as  the 
leaves  have  developed,  a  much  less  amount  of  water  is  needed 
and  the  cells  produced  later  in  the  season  are  smaller  and 
have  thicker  walls.  This  gives  rise  to  what  are  known  as 
spring  and  summer  wood.  This  difference  in  the  texture  of 
the  spring  and  summer  wood  produces  the  grain  in  wood  and 
separates  one  year's  growth  from  another.  With  tropical  trees 
this  difference  in  the  spring  and  summer  wood  does  not  exist. 
There  is  no  rest  period  in  the  growth  of  trees  similar  to  our 
winter,  so  there  is  continuous  growth  in  the  wood  and  no  an- 


Light  affects  the  form  of  trees.     Grown  in  the  open  a  wide  spreading 
crown  and  short  thick  bole  results. 


—Outer  bark 

— Inner  bark 
— Sapwood 
Heartwood 

Pith 

Medullary  ray 
ambium  layer 

Annual  ring 

Spring  wood 

—Summer  wood 


•    ...  .    ,    w „ ...^^     n 

4      /     C 

Diagram  to  show'  parts  of  the  cross  section  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 


THE  TREE  19 

nual  rings  can  be  seen.  The  age  of  tropical  trees  cannot  be  told 
by  the  annual  rings.  The  size  of  the  tree  however  will  give 
some  indication  of  the  age. 

The  width  of  the  annual  rings  varies  in  different  species. 
The  wider  the  annual  rings  the  faster  has  been  the  growth  of 
the  tree.  In  the  same  tree  the  width  of  the  annual  rings  will 
usually  vary  from  year  to  year.  A  favorable,  moist  year  will 
produce  a  wide  annual  ring  and  a  dry,  unfavorable  year  a 
narrow  ring.  In  general  trees  grow  slowly  in  diameter  during 
the  first  few  years  of  their  life.  The  rate  then  increases  until 
middle  life  when  the  trees  usually  produce  their  widest  annual 
rings.  The  rate  of  growth  then  falls  off  and  in  old  trees  the 
width  of  the  annual  rings  may  be  so  small  as  not  to  be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye. 

Height  Growth  in  Trees. — The  growth  of  trees  in  height 
and  the  growth  of  branches  in  length  is  produced  by  the 
development  in  the  spring  of  the  terminal  buds  formed  the 
previous  season.  It  is  a  kind  of  stretching  process  or  the 
filling  out  with  water  or  sap  of  cells  already  formed  in  the 
buds.  New  cells  are  also  formed  by  cell  division  and  the  buds 
quickly  lengthen  into  twigs  or  shoots.  These  new  shoots  do 
not  grow  in  length  after  the  first  season.  The  next  year  they 
will  grow  in  thickness  only.  From  the  terminal  bud  formed 
on  the  end  of  the  twig  a  new  shoot  will  be  produced  to  in- 
crease the  length  of  the  tree  or  branch.  The  growth  of  the 
roots  in  length  and  thickness  is  much  similar  to  the  growth  of 
branches.  It  will  thus  be  seen  to  be  impossible  for  a  fork  in 
the  trunk  of  a  young  tree  to  rise  as  the  tree  grows  older. 
A  fork  once  formed  in  a  tree  always  remains  at  the  same 
height  above  the  ground.  The  trunk  of  a  tree  does  not  stretch. 
If  this  were  not  so,  wire  fencing  nailed  to  a  young  tree  would 
gradually  be  carried  upward. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  LIFE  PROCESSES  OF  TREES  AND  THE  NATURAL 
FACTORS  THAT  INFLUENCE  THE  LIFE  OF  TREES 

SINCE  a  tree  is  a  living  organism  it  must  carry  on  certain 
life  processes.  It  must  breathe,  absorb  and  digest  food,  and 
transport  nourishment  to  the  parts  needing  it.  Many  of  the 
life  processes  in  trees  are  similar  in  kind  to  those  in  animals. 

Breathing  or  Respiration. — Breathing  takes  place  through 
minute  openings  usually  on  the  under  side  of  leaves  called 
stomata.  The  tree  breathes  in  oxygen  and  breathes  out  car- 
bonic acid  gas  the  same  as  an  animal.  The  oxygen  is  used  in 
carrying  on  the  life  processes  of  the  tree.  To  some  extent, 
especially  in  the  winter  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  breathing 
takes  place  through  small  openings  or  lenticles  in  the  bark  of 
the  trunk,  branches  or  roots,  the  oxygen  being  conducted  to 
the  inner  portions  of  the  tree  along  the  medullary  or  pith 
rays. 

Absorption  and  Transpiration. — The  food  of  trees  is  ab- 
sorbed through  the  root  hairs  and  through  the  leaves.  The 
food  absorbed  by  the  root  hairs  is  water  and  dissolved  mineral 
salts,  that  absorbed  by  the  leaves  is  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the 
air.  The  water  and  mineral  salts  are  carried  up  through  the 
new  wood  to  the  leaves.  The  salts  are  contained  in  the 
ground  in  very  weak  solutions.  In  order  that  enough  may  be 
brought  up  to  supply  the  needs  of  a  tree,  a  far  greater  amount 
of  water  must  be  absorbed  than  is  actually  needed.  The  ex- 
cess of  water  passes  out  through  the  stomata  of  the  leaves  as 
water  vapor. 

20 


THE  LIFE  PROCESSES  OF  TREES  21 

This  process  is  called  transpiration.  The  action  also  helps 
to  cool  the  leaves  as  does  perspiration  in  animals.  Transpira- 
tion takes  place  in  winter  through  the  lenticles  of  the  bark. 
The  main  part  of  the  mineral  substances  taken  up  remains  in 
the  leaves  and  young  twigs  when  the  water  is  transpired  and 
is  returned  to'  the  soil  when  the  leaves  are  shed  or  when  the 
trees  are  cut  and  the  brush  left  to  decay.  When  wood  is 
burned  these  mineral  substances  reappear  as  ash. 

Digestion. — Carbonic  acid  gas  forms  the  bulk  of  the  food 
of  trees.  By  the  action  of  sunlight  and  chlorophyll,  the  green 
coloring  material  of  leaves,  carbonic  acid  gas  is  decomposed 
into  oxygen  and  carbon.  This  process  is  called  photosyn- 
thesis. The  carbon  is  retained  and  the  oxygen  exhaled  into  the 
air.  The  carbon  is  then  combined  with  the  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  of  the  water  and  with  certain  of  the  mineral  salts 
to  form  food  substances  like  starch  and  sugar,  which  can  be 
utilized  by  the  tree.  In  other  words,  the  materials  absorbed 
through  the  roots  and  leaves  must  be  digested  in  the  leaves 
before  they  become  available  as  food. 

Circulation. — After  food  is  thus  prepared  in  the  leaves  it 
is  carried  down  through  the  inner,  soft  bark  of  the  branches, 
trunk  and  roots  and  then  through  the  medullary  rays  into  the 
wood.  Some  of  the  food  material  as  it  is  carried  down  the 
tree  is  used  at  once  in  forming  the  annual  rings,  flowers, 
fruit  and  other  parts  of  the  tree.  Other  portions  are  stored 
away  for  starting  the  next  year's  growth.  The  expression 
"the  rise  and  fall  of  sap"  in  trees  is  thus  seen  to  have  no 
real  meaning.  Water  and  mineral  salts  are  constantly  being 
taken  into  the  tree  through  the  root  hairs  and  carried  to  the 
leaves  through  the  new  wood  or  sap.  wood  of  the  trunks  and 
roots.  The  process  goes  on  in  the  winter  time  as  well  as 
in  the  summer  although  very  slowly.  Because  of  the  greater 
transpiration  from  the  tree  in  the  summer  due  to  the  leaves, 
there  is  actually  more  water  in  a  tree  in  winter  than  in  sum- 
mer. After  food  material  has  been  manufactured  in  the 


22  FARM  FORESTRY 

leaves  it  is  carried  down  through  the  soft  or  inner  bark  and 
into  the  tree  through  the  pith  rays.  The  sap  never  passes 
downward  through  the  wood  of  the  tree. 

How  Trees  Reproduce  Themselves. — Trees  reproduce  them- 
selves principally  by  seeds  and  by  sprouts.  A  few  trees  pro- 
duce seed  every  year  but  most  trees  produce  heavy  seed  crops 
only  every  two  or  more  years.  Seed  production  requires  a 
large  amount  of  food.  This  the  tree  stores  up  and  after  a 
seed  year  most  trees  require  some  time  to  lay  up  sufficient  food 
to  produce  another  crop.  Trees  in  the  open  produce  seed  more 
often  and  in  greater  abundance  than  trees  in  the  woodlot  owing 
to  the  larger  crowns.  In  the  woodlot  trees  produce  seed  only 
on  the  upper  portions  of  the  crown  which  are  exposed  to  the 
light.  Usually  a  large  part  of  the  seed  produced  by  trees  is 
infertile. 

Most  trees  are  very  particular  in  regard  to  the  character 
of  the  seed  bed  or  the  ground  on  which  the  seed  germinates. 
Some  trees  like  hemlock  and  yellow  birch  like  a  moist  seed  bed. 
These  trees  are  often  found  starting  on  rotting  stumps  or  logs 
or  on  moss.  The  seed  of  many  other  trees  requires  the  mineral 
soil  for  germination.  Some,  like  the  pitch  pine,  cedar  and 
gray  birch  will  grow  on  dry  soil  in  full  sunlight.  Others  de- 
mand shade  for  germination.  Where  the  ground  is  too  hard 
and  dry  for  the  tender  roots  from  the  seed  to  penetrate,  no 
seedlings  will  be  produced. 

Trees  vary  in  the  arrangements  for  scattering  the  seed 
and  the  distance  to  which  the  seed  is  sown.  Light  seeded  trees 
like  ash,  tulip,  cottonwood  and  willo\v  will  scatter  their  seed 
long  distances  in  the  wind,  often  a  mile  or  more  in  heavy  winds. 
Many  seeds  have  wings  or  other  contrivances  which  cause  the 
seeds  to  whirl  about  as  they  fall  or  which  hold  them  in  the  air 
so  that  they  are  blown  far  from  the  seed  trees.  Trees  with 
heavy  seed  like  oak,  hickory  and  chestnut  can  sow  their  seed 
only  under  their  crowns,  except  as  the  falling  seeds  strike 
branches  and  bound  away  from  the  tree  or  roll  down  a  slope. 


One  year  old  sprout  from  chestnut  stump. 


THE  LIFE  PROCESSES  OF  TREES  23 

Squirrels  and  birds  help  to  scatter  the  seeds  of  trees.  Squir- 
rels will  carry  nuts  long  distances  from  the  trees  that  pro- 
duce them  and  hide  them  in  the  grass  or  ground  for  winter  use. 
Such  seeds  are  often  forgotten  and  germinate  and  grow  into 
trees. 

Usually  hardwood  trees  reproduce  themselves  by  sprouts 
as  well  as  by  seeds.  When  a  hardwood  tree  is  cut  down 
sprouts  start  from  the  stump  which  in  time  grow  into  trees. 
Some  trees  like  the  chestnut  will  produce  hundreds  of  sprouts 
from  the  same  stump,  while  many  other  trees  will  produce  but 
a  few.  Trees  from  sprouts  grow  faster  than  those  from  seeds 
during  their  early  life,  because  they  make  use  of  the  roots  of 
the  old  tree  which  are  stored  with  food.  Sprout  trees  are  not 
so  long  lived  as  trees  from  seeds  and  do  not  grow  to  so  large 
a  size.  They  are  also  apt  to  become  rotten  at  the  base  because 
of  disease  communicated  to  them  from  the  old  rotting  stumps. 
Trees  grown  from  seed,  while  they  are  of  slower  growth  than 
sprout  trees  for  thirty  to  forty  years,  will  finally  overtake  the 
sprout  trees  and  outgrow  them.  Trees  sprout  best  in  early 
life.  Old  trees  are  apt  to  lose  this  sprouting  ability.  Trees 
will  sprout  if  cut  at  any  time  of  the  year.  If  cut  in  summer, 
however,  the  sprouts  produced  will  be  winter  killed,  for  the 
wood  will  not  have  had  time  to  harden  before  the  early  frosts 
come.  The  time  to  cut  trees  for  sprout  reproduction  is  in 
winter  when  they  are  at  rest.  Trees  growing  along  fences  can 
often  be  killed  by  cutting  them  in  summer.  The  sprouts  pro- 
duced will  be  frozen  back  the  next  winter.  Sprouts  will  be  sent 
forth  the  following  spring  but  they  will  not  be  vigorous.  They 
should  be  cut  in  summer  and  new  sprouts  obtained  which  in 
turn  will  be  killed  in  winter.  In  this  way  a  stump  can  generally 
be  exhausted  of  its  food  and  killed. 

Some  trees  like  the  beech  and  wild  plum  reproduce  them- 
selves by  suckers  as  well  as  by  seeds  and  sprouts.  These  are 
shoots  that  start  from  the  roots.  Still  another  method  of 
reproduction  known  as  the  vegetative  method  takes  place  in 


24  FARM  FORESTRY 

some  trees  like  the  willow.  If  a  branch  is  broken  off  from  the 
tree  by  the  wind  or  by  the  weight  of  snow  and  ice,  it  will  start 
to  grow  if  a  portion  of  the  branch  becomes  covered  with  earth. 
Many  trees  like  the  willow  and  poplar  can  be  reproduced  by 
making  cuttings  of  the  new  twigs  and  planting  them  in  the 
ground.  On  high  mountains  or  in  the  far  north  where  -the 
summer  season  is  too  short  to  mature  seeds,  some  trees  will 
reproduce  themselves  by  layering.  This  takes  place  when  a 
branch  of  the  tree  touches  the  ground  and  produces  roots. 

NATURAL   FACTORS   THAT   INFLUENCE  THE   LIFE  OF   TREES 

Trees  cannot  live  without  heat,  light,  moisture  and  food. 
These  are  often  spoken  of  as  factors  of  site.  Site  means  the 
location  or  situation,  as  bottomland,  side  hill,  upper  slope  or 
ridge.  Trees  vary  in  the  amount  of  each  of  these  factors  de- 
manded for  their  best  growth.  The  kind  of  trees  found  in 
any  situation  is  determined  by  the  presence  or  absence  of 
these  factors  in  varying  amounts.  Some  trees  require  more 
heat  than  other  trees.  On  a  moist  situation  are  not  found  the 
same  trees  that  grow  on  dry  situations.  Trees  are  seen  grow- 
ing beneath  the  shade  of  other  trees,  while  others  demand  the 
full  sunlight.  Some  trees  will  not  grow  well  unless  they  have 
a  fertile  soil,  while  other  trees  will  grow  on  poor  soil.  Trees 
are  often  found  growing  where  one  or  more  of  these  factors 
are  not  favorable  to  them.  But  they  do  not  grow  well  under 
such  conditions.  They  will  have  very  slow  growth  and  be 
more  or  less  stunted  and  of  poor  form.  The  amount  of  each 
of  these  different  factors  needed  is  not  definite.  There  is  a 
maximum  and  a  minimum  amount  of  each  which  a  certain 
species  of  tree  will  stand.  If  the  limit  is  exceeded  either  way 
the  tree  will  die.  There  is  also  an  optimum  amount  for  each 
factor  under  which  a  tree  will  do  its  best.  The  factors  often 
supplement  each  other.  On  a  deep,  rich  soil  less  moisture  is 
required  than  on  a  thin,  poor  soil.  Less  light  is  required  where 
the  soil  and  moisture  conditions  are  very  favorable. 


o 


W) 

s 


THE  LIFE  PROCESSES  OF  TREES  25 

The  action  of  the  factors  of  site  on  tree  life  is  very  com- 
plex and  it  is  difficult  to  determine  often  just  the  amount  of 
each  separate  factor  that  is  needed  by  a  tree.  Nearly  all  trees 
will  grow  well  under  favorable  conditions.  Only  a  few  will 
live  where  the  conditions  are  not  favorable.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  a  site  favorable  to  one  tree  may  be  an  un- 
favorable site  for  another  tree.  The  trees  found  growing 
naturally  in  the  same  locality  and  on  the  same  site  do  not 
differ  widely  in  their  demands.  For  this  reason  forests  usually 
are  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  trees. 

Heat. — Trees  cover  the  greater  portion  of  the  earth  from 
the  equator  to  the  limit  of  tree  growth  in  the  polar  regions. 
Many  trees  grow  luxuriantly  in  the  hot  climate  of  the  Torrid 
Zone.  Provided  there  is  enough  moisture  present,  the  extreme 
heat  of  the  sun  in  that  region  is  not  too  great  for  certain  kinds 
of  trees.  Some  of  the  largest  known  trees  of  the  world  are 
found  in  the  temperate  climate,  such  as  the  redwood  trees  of 
California.  But  as  we  pass  into  the  colder  regions  of  the 
north  trees  which  farther  south  grow  to  great  height  become 
smaller  and  smaller  until  they  are  shrublike  and  finally  disap- 
pear. There  is  a  line  in  the  colder  regions  called  the  timber 
line  beyond  which  there  is  no  tree  growth.  The  same  gradual 
dwindling  in  size  and  the  final  disappearance  of  trees  is 
noticed  in  ascending  a  mountain.  Trees  which  grow  naturally 
in  a  warm  region  will  not  grow  in  the  colder  regions  of  the 
north.  Trees  that  grow  in  the  temperate  climate  will  wither 
and  die  under  the  hot  sun  of  the  warmer  regions.  There  is  an 
optimum  region  for  each  tree — a  certain  portion  of  the  country 
where  it  will  grow  best.  Much  farther  north  or  south  it 
will  not  thrive  and  will  finally  be  crowded  out  of  the  forest 
by  other  trees  better  suited  to  the  conditions.  The  trees  found 
growing  naturally  in  any  portion  of  the  country  are  probably 
better  suited  to  its  climate  than  trees  that  grow  elsewhere. 
There  is  danger  in  planting  a  tree  not  native  to  a  certain  region. 
Unless  the  climate  where  the  trees  are  planted  is  similar  to  the 


26  FARM  FORESTRY 

climate  tinder  which  the  trees  naturally  grow,  they  will  not 
thrive.  Seed  from  trees  that  grow  naturally  in  northern 
regions  produce  trees  that  do  well  when  planted  farther  south, 
because  they  are  less  apt  to  be  injured  by  late  frosts  in  the 
spring.  Southern  grown  trees  coming  from  a  region  of 
longer  growing  season  when  planted  farther  north,  do  ,not 
stop  their  growth  in  the  fall  in  time  to  escape  the  early  frosts, 
and  in  the  spring  they  are  apt  to  start  too  early.  There  are, 
however,  many  trees  not  native  to  a  region  which  can  be  in- 
troduced if  found  suited  to  the  climate.  Many  foreign  trees 
do  well  in  this  country  when  they  are  planted  where  the  climate 
is  similar  to  that  of  their  native  country. 

Light. — The  amount  of  light  which  is  demanded  by  trees 
varies  with  different  species.  Some  are  able  to  thrive  beneath 
the  shade  of  other  trees,  while  many  demand  the  full  sunlight 
and  grow  only  in  the  open.  The  former  are  spoken  of  as 
tolerant  trees,  the  latter  as  intolerant  trees.  Spruce,  beech, 
hemlock  and  dogwood  are  examples  of  tolerant  trees.  They 
grow  naturally  in  shady  places  as  on  the  northern  slope  of  a 
hill,  in  a  ravine  or  beneath  taller  trees.  Aspen,  jack  pine  and 
tulip  are  examples  of  intolerant  trees.  They  demand  full 
sunlight  for  their  proper  development.  If  they  become  over- 
topped by  other  trees  they  will  gradually  die.  Tolerant  trees 
will  grow  in  full  sunlight  if  started  in  the  sun.  Some  species 
like  the  white  pine  are  tolerant  in  their  youth  but  as  the  trees 
grow  older  they  become  intolerant  and  demand  full  sunlight. 
The  seedlings  of  all  trees  will  stand  more  shade  than  the  older 
trees.  Seedlings  of  many  intolerant  trees  are  often  found  com- 
ing up  in  woodlots.  These  will  die  later  if  the  older  trees  are 
not  removed,  or  if  there  are  not  breaks  in  the  canopy  allowing 
the  sunlight  to  pass  through.  Trees  growing  under  other  trees 
if  removed  and  planted  in  the  sun  will  die,  and  trees  that  have 
started  and  grown  naturally  in  the  sunlight  will  die  if  taken 
up  and  planted  in  shade.  Trees  are  very  sensitive  to  a  sudden 
change  in  the  conditions  under  which  they  have  lived. 


THE  LIFE  PROCESSES  OF  TREES  27 

Moisture. — Soil  moisture  is  essential  for  tree  growth.  We 
have  seen  that  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  tree  by  weight 
is  water  either  chemically  combined  in  the  wood  substance  or 
present  as  free  water  or  sap.  A  tree  transpires  moisture  con- 
stantly through  the  leaves  and  through  the  bark  in  both  sum- 
mer and  winter.  For  tree  growth  there  must  be  present  in  the 
soil  a  supply  of  moisture  adequate  to  supply  the  tree  with 
water  needed  to  carry  on  the  life  processes.  Should  the  supply 
fall  below  the  minimum  necessary  the  tree  will  die.  If  trans- 
piration from  a  tree  takes  place  faster  than  the  roots  can  absorb 
the  moisture  from  the  soil,  the  tree  will  dry  out  and  die. 
This  often  takes  place  in  winter  when  the  ground  freezes  be- 
low the  roots  of  the  tree  and  excessive  transpiration  takes 
place  through  the  bark  induced  by  very  bright  sun.  The 
death  of  the  trees  in  this  way  is  known  as  winter  killing. 
In  transplanting  large  trees  it  is  customary  to  cut  back  the 
crowns  so  as  to  reduce  the  transpiration  of  moisture,  until 
the  roots  have  a  firm  hold  on  the  ground. 

The  presence  of  moisture  in  varying  amounts  in  the  soil 
is  probably  the  principal  factor  in  the  local  distribution  of 
trees.  Soil  moisture  more  than  any  other  factor  determines 
what  trees  will  grow  in  a  certain  situation,  as  on  a  ridge, 
on  a  slope  or  on  bottomland.  Many  trees  demand  a  large 
amount  of  water  in  the  soil  and  are  found  growing  naturally 
in  or  near  swamps  and  on  damp  soil,  while  others  seek  the 
driest  situations.  Some  trees  are  very  particular  as  to  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  they  demand  a  certain  amount 
and  will  not  grow  if  the  amount  is  increased  or  diminished, 
while  others  will  grow  under  different  moisture  conditions. 
The  same  tree  is  often  found  growing  in  the  bottom-land 
and  on  upper  slopes  and  ridges,  but  it  grows  best  where 
the  moisture  conditions  are  most  favorable  to  it.  If  a  tree 
that  demands  dry  conditions  is  planted  on  a  damp  soil  it  will 
soon  die,  and  a  tree  that  needs  a  moist  soil  will  not  live  if 
deprived  of  that  moisture  or  planted  on  a  dry  soil.  Because 


28  FARM  FORESTRY 

a  tree  grows  well  in  bottomlands  or  along  streams  is  no  reason 
to  believe  that  it  will  thrive  when  planted  on  a  ridge,  even  if 
the  composition  of  the  soil  is  the  same. 

Food. — Trees  as  well  as  other  forms  of  organic  life  de- 
mand food  for  carrying  on  their  life  functions.  As  we  have 
already  learned  trees  absorb  food  through  their  leaves  and 
through  their  roots.  They  obtain  a  large  portion  of  their 
food  from  the  air  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  supply 
of  which  is  sufficient  for  all  trees.  They  obtain  mineral  salts 
and  water  from  the  soil  through  their  smaller  roots.  The  de- 
mand made  by  trees  on  the  soil  varies  with  different  species. 
Some  trees  will  grow  on  an  almost  sterile,  sandy  soil,  while 
others  demand  as  rich  and  fertile  a  soil  as  do  agricultural 
crops.  Pitch  pine  will  grow  on  thin,  dry  soil  on  the  tops  of 
ridges,  while  black  walnut  and  catalpa  demand  the  best  of 
soil  conditions  for  good  growth. 


The  canopy  formed  by  the  tree  crowns. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  WOODLOT 

A  WOODLOT  is  a  collection  or  stand  of  forest  trees  grown 
together  to  produce  wood  for  use  on  the  farm.  A  forest  is 
sometimes  defined  as  a  collection  of  trees  growing  so  closely 
together  as  to  interfere  with  the  natural  development  of  the 
crowns.  The  natural  form  of  crown  in  trees  is  observed  on 
those  growing  in  the  open.  In  a  park  the  trees  stand  far 
enough  apart  from  one  another  so  that  the  growth  of  the 
crowns  is  not  materially  interfered  with.  Park  trees  are  grown 
for  their  shade  and  beauty.  Woodlot  and  forest  trees  are 
grown  for  the  production  of  wood.  Many  farm  woodlots 
are  of  the  park-like  form  due  to  one  cause  or  another,  but 
usually  forest  conditions  prevail. 

In  the  woodlot  the  trees,  standing  closely  together,  crowd 
each  other.  As  they  grow  the  sidewise  development  of  the 
crowns  is  restricted.  The  energy  of  growth  becomes  con- 
centrated in  the  tops  of  the  trees.  The  result  is  quick  height 
growth  and  the  production  of  trees  with  small  crowns  but 
with  long,  cylindrical  boles  free  of  branches — the  ideal  form 
for  a  tree  intended  for  use. 

PARTS    OF   THE    WOODLOT 

It  is  possible  to  distinguish  several  parts  to  a  woodlot — 
the  canopy,  the  region  of  the  boles,  the  undergrowth,  the  forest 
floor  and  the  region  of  root  development. 

The  Canopy. — The  canopy  is  the  covering  of  tree  crowns. 
Within  the  canopy  the  crowns  of  the  trees  do  not  usually 
all  stand  at  the  same  elevation.  Some  have  their  crowns 

29 


30  FARM  FORESTRY 

well  above  neighboring  crowns  spreading  out  in  the  sunlight. 
These  are  called  dominant  trees.  Other  crowns  occupy  the 
lower  portion  of  the  canopy,  overtopped  and  shaded  by  those 
above.  These  are  the  suppressed  trees.  Still  other  crowns 
occupy  a  position  between  these  two.  They  have  their  crowns 
open  to  the  light  but  they  are  narrow  and  restricted,  due  to 
crowding  by  the  taller,  dominant  trees.  These  are  called 
intermediate  trees.  Where  the  canopy  is  thick  it  prevents 
excessive  evaporation  from  the  soil  and  serves  as  a  protection 
to  the  under  portions  from  the  drying  effects  of  the  wind  and 
sun  and  from  the  extreme  cold  of  winter.  Forest  trees  will 
not  grow  well  together  unless  the  canopy  is  intact,  so  that  the 
floor  is  shaded  from  the  sunlight,  bringing  about  and  main- 
taining forest  conditions.  It  keeps  the  air  and  soil  moist  be- 
neath the  trees  and  prevents  a  heavy  growth  of  grass,  weeds 
and  berry  bushes,  that  would  rob  the  trees  of  moisture  and 
food. 

The  Region  of  the  Boles. — This  comprises  the  space  be- 
tween the  canopy  and  the  undergrowth  or  forest  floor.  It 
is  occupied  by  the  boles  of  the  trees  and  is  high  or  low 
according  to  the  distance  the  canopy  is  above  the  forest  floor. 
The  air  surrounding  the  boles  has  greater  humidity  than  the 
air  outside  the  woodlot  and  is  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler 
in  summer  than  the  air  in  the  open. 

The  Undergrowth. — The  undergrowth  comprises  seed- 
lings, or  reproduction  as  it  is  often  called,  of  the  trees  in  the 
woodlot,  together  with  bushes  and  shrubs.  When  the  canopy 
is  thin  or  broken  the  undergrowth  may  have  a  beneficial  effect 
in  protecting  the  forest  floor  from  the  sun  and  from  the  beat- 
ing effects  of  rain  and  in  preventing  evaporation.  But  if  the 
undergrowth  is  too  thick  it  may  cause  a  reduction  in  the 
growth  of  trees  by  absorbing  large  amounts  of  mineral  food 
and  moisture  from  the  soil.  The  future  of  the  woodlot  de- 
pends on  the  young  seedling  trees  in  the  undergrowth.  Cut- 
ting all  the  undergrowth,  as  is  often  done  to  open  up  the 


The  region  of  the  boles  and  the  undergrowth. 


The  forest  floor.     Leaves  and  twigs  fallen  from  the  trees  form  the  humus. 


THE  WOODLOT  31 

woodlot,  may  cause  the  soil  to  deteriorate  or  may  endanger 
the  future  of  the  woodlot.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to 
make  a  woodlot  park-like.  Forest  trees  grow  best  under  wild 
and  natural  conditions. 

The  Forest  Floor. — The  forest  floor  consists  of  the  ground 
cover  of  weeds  and  grass  and  the  underlying  mulch  of  more 
or  less  decomposed  leaves  called  the  humus.  Where  the  ground 
cover  is  not  thick,  the  weeds  and  grass  being  scattered  here 
and  there,  it  does  but  little  damage  and  may  even  have  a 
beneficial  effect  in  helping  to  protect  the  soil  and  prevent 
evaporation  when  the  canopy  is  thin.  But  where  this  growth 
is  very  thick,  as  is  usually  the  case  where  there  are  but  few 
trees  in  the  woodlot  and  the  canopy  is  broken,  it  will  absorb 
moisture  and  nutriment  from  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil 
and  so  lessen  the  growth  of  the  trees.  It  will  also  tend  to 
prevent  new  trees  from  starting  or  if  any  start  will  suppress 
them  by  their  shade. 

Beneath  the  ground  cover  and  above  the  soil  is  an  accu- 
mulation of  leaves  and  twigs  called  the  humus.  This  is  usually 
in  several  layers.  The  upper  layer  is  composed  of  leaves  of 
the  last  year  pressed  down  by  the  snow  and  flattened  by  rain. 
Underneath  this  is  a  matted  layer  of  leaves  partly  decomposed. 
These  layers  together  are  usually  called  the  litter.  Just  above 
the  mineral  soil  is  found  a  black,  powdery  substance,  the  result 
of  the  rotting  of  the  leaves  and  twigs.  This  black  powder 
or  humus  mixes  with  the  soil  and  where  present  in  consider- 
able amounts  darkens  it,  often  making  it  black  like  muck. 
Humus  acts  as  a  fertilizer  to  the  trees.  It  improves  the  soil 
both  chemically  and  physically.  The  decay  of  the  leaves 
and  twigs  sets  free  many  salts  which  are  immediately  avail- 
able as  food  for  the  tree.  Being  a  vegetable  substance, 
the  humus  will  absorb  and  hold  water  like  a  sponge,  giving 
it  out  gradually  as  needed  by  the  trees. 

The  humus,  or  duff  as  it  is  often  called,  will  vary  in  thick- 
ness according  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  accumulates. 


32  FARM   FORESTRY 

The  decomposition  of  the  leaves  and  twigs  is  brought  about 
by  bacteria  and  fungi.  Air,  moisture  and  warmth  in  certain 
amounts  are  essential  for  their  action.  Where  one  or  more 
of  these  factors  are  not  favorable  to  the  decomposition  of  the 
leaves  and  twigs,  humus  will  accumulate  rapidly.  In  the  cool 
north  woods  under  a  dense  canopy,  the  humus  or  duff  is 
often  found  over  a  foot  in  thickness.  It  accumulates  rapidly 
in  cold,  damp  situations  as  on  a  northern  slope,  in  a  ravine 
or  beneath  the  dense  shade  of  the  forest.  It  does  not  accu- 
mulate in  an  open  stand  of  trees  where  the  sun  has  a  chance 
to  warm  and  dry  the  soil,  bringing  about  conditions  favorable 
for  the  growth  of  the  fungi  and  bacteria.  It  is  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  leaves  and  twigs  and  the  formation  of  the  black, 
powdery  humus  and  the  setting  free  of  soluble  salts  that  is 
of  advantage  to  trees — not  the  accumulation  of  the  partially 
decayed  leaves  in  thick  layers.  Too  thick  an  accumulation  of 
humus  tends  to  make  the  soil  sour  because  of  the  vegetable 
acids  set  free.  Opening  up  the  forest  canopy  by  the  removal 
of  a  few  trees,  allowing  the  sunlight  to  reach  the  floor,  will 
bring  about  a  rapid  reduction  of  the  humus. 

The  Region  of  Root  Development. — This  comprises  the 
soil  and  the  subsoil  and  the  root  systems  of  the  trees.  The 
subsoil  is  of  more  importance  in  forestry  than  in  agriculture. 
It  often  determines  the  kind  of  tree  that  will  grow.  There 
is  scarcely  any  soil  that  will  not  support  some  kind  of  tree 
growth.  The  depth  and  character  are  of  great  importance. 
Where  the  soil  is  not  of  sufficient  depth  to  allow  the  develop- 
ment of  the  characteristic  root  form  of  trees,  the  growth  of 
the  trees  will  suffer.  This  is  especially  true  where  trees  that 
naturally  produce  a  tap  root  are  grown  on  shallow  soil.  The 
roots  of  a  tree  extend  out  in  all  directions  as  far  as  or  farther 
than  the  branches.  In  a  woodlot  the  root  systems  of  the  differ- 
ent trees  interlace,  until  the  soil  and  often  the  subsoil  down  to 
the  water  table  is  completely  filled  with  roots.  Trees  growing 
too  closely  together  constantly  compete  with  each  other  for 


THE  WOODLOT  33 

moisture  and  food  from  the  soil.  This  interlacing  of  the 
roots  of  trees  is  often  of  great  value  in  preventing  the  soil 
on  steep  slopes  from  being  washed  away  by  rains  or  floods. 
A  certain  kind  of  soil  may  be  more  favorable  to  one  kind  of 
tree  than  to  another.  The  chestnut,  while  it  will  live  and 
develop  on  limestone  soil  is  not  able  to  compete  naturally 
on  such  soil  against  the  oaks,  and  other  trees  associated  with 
them.  These  other  trees  are  better  adapted  to  the  limestone 
soil  and  so  will  crowd  out  the  chestnut. 


THE   DIFFERENT    KINDS    AND    FORMS   OF    WOODLOTS 

Farm  woodlots  are  of  many  kinds  and  forms.  These  are 
the  result  of  the  method  of  treatment  and  the  method  of 
cutting  the  trees.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  two  woodlots 
just  alike  or  that  have  received  the  same  treatment.  All  wood- 
lots  can  be  included,  however,  under  a  few  general  heads. 

Kinds  of  Woodlots  as  to  Species  of  Trees. — A  woodlot 
has  a  pure  stand  of  timber  if  it  contains  but  one  kind  of  tree. 
Such  a  woodlot  would  be  hard  to  find.  Nearly  all  woodlots 
contain  more  than  one  kind  of  tree,  although  there  are  many 
woodlots  made  up  nearly  of  one  kind.  It  is  usual  to  consider 
a  wooodlot  as  having  a  pure  stand  if  more  than  80  per  cent 
of  the  trees  are  of  one  kind. 

A  woodlot  has  a  mixed  stand  of  timber  if  it  is  made  up 
of  several  kinds  of  trees,  no  one  of  which  forms  more  than 
80  per  cent  of  the  whole  stand. 

Kinds  of  Woodlots  as  to  the  Number  of  Trees  Present. — 
Woodlots  are  dense,  open  or  fully  stocked  according  to  the 
number  of  trees  per  acre.  When  a  woodlot  has  just  enough 
trees  on  a  given  area  so  that  the  crowns  of  the  trees  meet 
and  fully  cover  and  shade  the  ground,  and  so  there  is  sufficient 
crowding  between  the  trees  to  produce  rapid  height  growth 
and  trees  of  good  form,  the  woodlot  is  said  to  be  fully  stocked. 
If  the  trees  are  crowded  so  closely  together  that  the  crowns 


34  FARM  FORESTRY 

are  much  restricted  and  the  growth  of  the  trees  retarded, 
the  woodlot  is  said  to  be  very  dense  or  overcrowded.  When 
a  woodlot  contains  a  fewer  number  of  trees  than  are  needed 
to  shade  the  soil,  the  woodlot  is  said  to  be  open. 

Kinds  of  Woodlots  Based  on  the  Age  of  the  Trees. — A 
woodlot  in  which  all  the  trees  are  of  approximately  the  same 
age  is  called  an  even-aged  woodlot.  When  the  woodlot  con- 
tains trees  of  many  ages  mixed  in  together  it  is  called  a  many- 
aged  woodlot.  Woodlots  are  also  divided  into  mature,  imma- 
ture and  overmature  stands  according  to  their  development. 
Second  growth  timber  is  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
old  mature  trees,  especially  the  old  virgin  trees,  of  which  so 
few  remain.  Such  timber  where  the  stand  is  not  fully  stocked 
is  apt  to  be  very  limby,  due  to  the  lower  branches  remaining 
alive  and  hanging  on  the  tree  a  long  time  before  being  pruned 
off  naturally. 

Kinds  of  Woodlots  Based  on  the  Form  of  the  Woodlot.— 
A  woodlot  is  said  to  have  a  regular  stand  of  timber  if  all 
the  trees  are  of  about  the  same  height,  the  crowns  of  the  trees 
forming  a  single  canopy.  Where  some  of  the  trees  are  of 
one  height,  their  crowns  forming  a  canopy,  and  the  rest  of 
the  trees  form  a  second  canopy  at  a  different  height,  the  wood- 
lot  is  called  a  two-storied  woodlot.  Such  a  woodlot  may 
result  from  the  trees  being  of  two  different  ages  widely  sepa- 
rated, and  also  ;nay  result  from  the  trees  having  different 
degrees  of  tolerance  and  rates  of  growth.  An  irregular  stand 
of  trees  or  woodlot  is  one  in  which  the  trees  are  of  different 
heights,  their  crowns  being  mixed  together,  giving  an  irregular 
appearance. 

Kinds  of  Woodlots  According  to  the  Origin  of  the  Trees. — 
When  the  trees  in  the  woodlot  have  all  sprung  from  seed  it 
is  called  a  seed  forest  or  high  forest.  If  the  trees  in  the 
woodlot  come  from  sprouts,  it  is  a  sprout  forest  or  coppice 
forest.  Where  the  woodlot  is  composed  of  both  seedling  trees 
and  sprout  trees,  it  is  a  composite  forest. 


Seedlings  and  sprouts  resulting  from  cutting  out  many '  of  'the ' 
allowing  sunlight  to  fall  on  the  forest  floor. 


PbJ 


No  attempt  should  be  made  to  make  a  woodlot  park  like, 
grow  best  under  natural  and  wild  conditions. 


Forest  trees 


THE  WOODLOT  35 

The  Ideal  Form  of  the  Small  Woodlot— The  ideal  form 
of  woodlot  for  supplying  a  farm  with  wood  products  would 
be  one  from  which  the  owner  could  obtain  at  any  time  trees 
of  any  size  or  kind  needed.  It  should  furnish  the  farm  with 
cordwood  for  fuel,  sawlogs  to  yield  lumber,  fenceposts  or  rails 
for  building,  or  mending  fences,  or  small  sticks  for  the  tem- 
porary mending  of  farm  implements.  It  should  contain  trees 
having  heavy,  hard  wood  suitable  for  fire  wood,  trees  having 
light,  smooth,  easily  worked  wood  for  construction  purposes, 
and  trees  having  durable  wood  for  fence  posts.  The  woodlot 
that  would  supply  all  these  different  sizes  of  trees  at  any  time 
would  have  an  uneven  aged  mixed  stand  of  timber.  The  trees 
would  be  of  many  different  kinds  and  of  all  sizes  and  ages. 

Each  of  the  different  forms  of  woodlots  will  demand  a 
different  treatment.  In  order  to  manage  them  properly  one 
must  have  a  knowledge  of  how  woodlots  are  established  and 
how  they  develop,  and  understand  the  laws  according  to  whicb 
trees  grow  together. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  TREES  IN  THE  WOODLOT 

THE  life  history  of  a  tree  growing  in  the  woodlot  among 
other  trees  differs  considerably  from  one  growing  alone  in  the 
open.  A  tree  growing  by  itself  is  not  hindered  in  its  natural 
development.  Its  crown  has  freedom  to  expand  in  all  direc- 
tions and  its  roots  can  spread  at  will  through  the  soil.  It  lives 
as  an  individual.  A  tree  growing  in  the  forest,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  not  this  freedom  of  development.  Its  crown  is 
restricted  by  the  crowns  of  other  trees  and  its  roots  must 
compete  for  space  and  food  with  the  root  systems  of  trees 
growing  near  it.  It  is  a  member  of  a  tree  association  and  its 
life  is  modified  by  the  laws  governing  that  association.  What 
these  laws  are  can  best  be  understood  by  tracing  the  develop- 
ment of  a  stand  of  timber  from  infancy  to  old  age  through 
the  following  stages : 

(a)  The   seedling  stage,   the  period  before  the  canopy 

closes. 

(b)  The  period  of  rapid  height  growth. 

(c)  The  period  of  rapid  diameter  increase. 

(d)  The  period  of  declining  vigor  in  the  trees. 

(a)  The  Seedling  Stage. — During  the  seedling  stage  or 
the  earliest  period  in  the  life  of  a  stand  of  timber  the  young 
trees  grow  as  individuals.  If  the  trees  have  been  planted 
by  man  they  are  evenly  spaced,  possibly  5  or  6  feet  apart. 
If  the  young  stand  has  been  established  by  seed  sown  from 
neighboring  trees  or  from  sprouts,  the  young  seedlings  will 
not  be  so  evenly  spaced  and  may  in  places  be  more  or  less 
bunched  together.  But  in  either  case  each  little  tree  usually 

36 


The    result    of    the    struggle    for    light    among    chestnut    trees.     Long, 
clean,  straight  boles  from  rapid  height  growth  and  natural  pruning. 


THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  TEEES  IN  THE  WOODLOT   37 

has  all  the  space  it  needs  for  the  expansion  of  its  crown  and 
roots.  As  the  little  seedlings  gradually  grow  in  height  they 
also  spread  their  crowns  by  extending  the  side  branches.  It 
is  not  many  years  until  the  ground  becomes  shaded.  With 
the  coming  together  of  the  crowns  the  sapling  stage  usually 
begins. 

(b)  The  Period  of  Rapid  Height  Growth. — Until  the 
crowns  of  the  little  trees  come  together  the  soil  is  exposed 
to  the  sun  and  wind  and  to  the  beating  and  washing  effect 
of  the  rains,  and  is  dry  and  hard  and  less  fertile  than  if  it 
had  been  under  cover.  As  a  consequence  the  growth  of  the 
trees  is  slow  during  the  seedling  stage.  As  soon  as  the  ground 
becomes  shaded  a  forest  floor  begins  to  form.  The  soil  be- 
comes soft  and  light  and  because  of  the  protection  from  the 
sun  it  contains  more  moisture.  The  leaves  from  the  trees 
falling  on  the  ground  rot  and  begin  the  formation  of  humus, 
which  helps  to  enrich  the  soil.  Grass  and  weeds  which  tend 
to  dry  the  soil  disappear  because  of  the  reduced  light.  With 
the  formation  of  the  forest  floor  and  a  bettering  of  the  soil 
conditions  a  change  comes  over  the  life  of  the  stand,  and  the 
young  trees  begin  to  grow  rapidly  in  height.  So  we  see  that 
the  growing  of  trees  together  has  a  beneficial  effect.  Each 
tree  tends  to  help  its  neighbor  by  protecting  it  from  the  sun 
and  wind,  and  by  helping  to  enrich  the  soil. 

Trees  growing  thickly  together  in  the  forest  not  only  have 
a  beneficial  effect  on  each  other,  they  also  exert  a  harrriful 
effect  in  that  they  tend  to  modify  the  natural  form  and  de- 
velopment of  each  other. 

When  the  crowns  of  the  trees  come  together  further  ex- 
pansion in  a  sidewise  direction  practically  ceases  and  the 
energy  of  growth  becomes  concentrated  in  the  terminal  buds 
in  the  tops  of  the  trees,  where  alone  height  growth  takes  place. 
Each  little  tree  now  seems  as  though  it  were  running  a  race 
with  its  neighbors  to  secure  the  space  and  light  above.  The 
contest  is  not  an  equal  one.  Some  of  the  trees  are  naturally 


38  FARM  FORESTRY 

able  to  grow  faster  than  others,  because  their  roots  are  better 
developed,  and  so  can  secure  more  food  and  moisture  from 
the  soil,  or  because  they  have  found  a  better  soil  than  the 
trees  about  them,  or  because  they  are  naturally  hardier  and 
stronger  trees  than  their  neighbors,  and  so  are  able  to  grow 
faster.  As  the  trees  become  larger  the  demand  for  light  and 
space  increases.  It  is  not  long  before  the  trees  begin  to  crowd 
each  other.  Not  only  do  they  contend  above  for  space  and 
light,  but  below  the  ground  a  struggle  is  going  on  between 
the  roots  for  food  and  moisture.  Whenever  a  branch  becomes 
overtopped  by  a  branch  from  a  neighboring  tree  it  is  weakened 
from  loss  of  sunlight.  The  leaves  on  it  are  not  able  to  manu- 
facture as  much  food  as  before  and  do  not  transpire  as  much 
water.  Less  and  less  amount  of  mineral  food  from  the  roots 
is  carried  to  them  and  a  correspondingly  greater  amount  is 
carried  to  the  healthy  leaves  above.  The  growth  of  the  branch 
gradually  becomes  slower,  the  leaves  wither,  and  finally  the 
branch  dies.  Only  those  branches  on  which  the  leaves  are 
exposed  to  the  light  and  are  able  to  manufacture  food  can 
live,  and  as  fast  as  these  become  overtopped  they  will  also  die. 

Tree  Crown  Classes. — As  the  trees  continue  to  grow  those 
that  make  the  fastest  height  growth  soon  outstrip  their  neigh- 
bors. Not  only  have  they  ample  room  to  send  their  tops  up  into 
the  air,  but  their  crowns  being  above  those  of  their  neighbors 
are  able  to  spread  out  sidewise.  They  become  the  most  vigor- 
ous trees  in  the  stand  and  are  called  the  dominant  trees.  The 
trees  that  have  been  overtopped  by  the  crowns  of  their  faster 
growing  neighbors  fall  behind,  and  their  growth  becomes  very 
slow  because  of  lack  of  light.  These  are  the  overtopped  or 
suppressed  trees.  Those  trees  that  are  being  crowded  by  their 
more  vigorous  neighbors,  but  still  have  a  portion  of  their 
crown  to  the  light,  are  called  intermediate  or  codominant 
trees. 

The  Struggle  for  Existence. — The  struggle  that  started 
with  the  coming  together  of  the  crowns  soon  becomes  very 


THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  TREES  IN  THE  WOODLOT    39 

intense.  It  is  a  struggle  for  existence.  Not  all  the  trees  that 
started  as  seedlings  can  survive.  As  the  trees  continue  to 
grow  larger,  a  smaller  and  smaller  number  of  them  can  occupy 
the  space  which  all  occupied  before.  Many  of  the  weaker 
ones  must  die.  Those  that  fall  behind  in  the  struggle  are 
crowded  out  of  the  association.  Not  being  able  to  secure  the 
sunlight  on  which  their  life  depends,  they  are  unable  to  manu- 
facture food  and  so  die.  Only  those  that  win  out  in  the 
struggle,  owing  to  their  faster  growth,  survive.  It  is  a  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest.  Those  that  live  on  are  the  survivors  of 
hundreds,  sometimes  of  thousands,  of  competitors.  They  win 
out  in  the  struggle  because  they  are  better  adapted  to  their 
surroundings  than  their  neighbors.  The  struggle  is  a  con- 
tinuous one.  Even  the  dominant  trees  soon  come  into  compe- 
tition with  other  dominant  trees  as  they  continue  to  grow  up 
and  spread  out  their  crowns,  and  the  struggle  begins  over 
again  between  these  trees  with  even  greater  energy. 

Natural  Pruning. — So  we  see  that  at  the  time  the  trees  are 
exerting  a  beneficial  effect  on  each  other,  they  are  carrying 
on  a  deadly  struggle.  But  it  is  to  this  very  struggle  upward 
for  light  and  space  that  we  owe  the  long,  straight,  slender 
trunks  of  the  trees  in  the  woodlot.  While  the  trees  are  grow- 
ing rapidly  in  height  the  lower  branches  are  dying  because  of 
lack  of  sunlight.  In  this  way  the  living  crowns  become  con- 
fined to  the  tops  of  the  trees.  On  a  growing  tree  in  the  open 
side  branches  are  able  to  expand  in  the  sunlight  and  remain 
alive  and  often  clothe  a  tree  to  the  ground.  But  in  the  forest, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  as  soon  as  a  branch  is  shaded  from 
the  sun  it  dies  because  it  can  no  longer  manufacture  food. 
Not  only  do  the  side  branches  die,  but  the  tree  finally  throws 
them  off.  This  the  tree  accomplishes  by  compressing  the  dead 
branch  next  the  trunk  by  each  succeeding  annual  layer  of  wood, 
until  finally  it  becomes  so  weakened  at  that  point  that  it  is 
broken  off  by  the  wind  or  snow  or  falls  off  of  its  own  weight. 
This  process  is  known  as  natural  pruning.  In  this  way  a 


40  FARM  FORESTRY 

long,  clear  trunk  is  finally  produced.  The  succeeding  layers 
of  annual  rings  laid  on  about  the  tree  will  cover  over  the 
wound  and  in  a  few  years  there  will  be  nothing  to  show  that 
a  branch  ever  grew  at  that  point.  The  branches,  however, 
will  remain  concealed  in  the  tree  and  will  form  the  knots  that 
appear  when  the  trunk  is  sawed  into  boards. 

During  this  period  the  tree  grows  faster  in  height  than  at 
any  other  time,  and  before  the  large  pole  stage  is  completed 
they  will  have  nearly  reached  their  total  height.  There  is  a  limit 
to  the  height  to  which  trees  will  grow.  Some  species  naturally 
grow  taller  than  others,  but  with  every  species  there  is  a  limit 
beyond  which  the  moisture  from  the  soil  cannot  be  raised. 
When  this  point  has  been  about  reached  there  will  be  little 
additional  height  growth. 

(c)  Period  of  Rapid  Diameter  Increase. — After  the  trees 
have  passed  the  period  of  most  rapid  height  growth  begins 
the  period  of  rapid  diameter  increase.  The  diameter  at  first 
small  has  increased  gradually  as  the  trees  have  developed 
until  with  the  completion  of  the  rapid  height  growth  the  growth 
energy  of  the  trees  becomes  concentrated  in  the  production 
of  wood  material,  and  wide  annual  rings  result. 

Owing  to  the  long,  clean  trunks  that  have  resulted  from 
the  rapid  height  growth  and  to  the  shade  caused  by  the  trees 
growing  closely  together,  the  diameter  growth  put  on  annually 
during  this  stage  is  of  clear  wood,  and  the  trees  increase 
rapidly  in  value  for  lumber.  It  is  the  period  of  the  greatest 
vigor  in  the  life  of  the  trees.  Seed  production  becomes  very 
large.  The  crowns  of  the  trees  become  thicker  and  the  ground 
beneath  the  trees  is  shaded  more  than  during  the  other  periods. 
Having  reached  their  total  height  the  tops  of  the  crowns  are 
no  longer  able  to  push  upward,  but  the  side  branches  begin  to 
grow  and  strive  to  reach  the  same  height  as  the  tops.  The 
crowns  of  the  trees  lose  the  more  or  less  conical  form  which 
they  have  had  up  to  this  time  and  begin  to  flatten  out.  Because 
of  this  sidewise  growth  the  competition  between  the  trees 


HttB^HZb 


The  height  growth  completed.     The  period  of  rapid  diameter  growtn. 
Western  hemlock  in  Washington. 


The  period  of  declining  vigor.     Younger  trees  starting  under  the  older 
ones,  to  take  their  places  when  they  fall. 


THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  TREES  IN  THE  WOODLOT    41 

continues  with  even  greater  severity  than  before.  Each  tree 
now  strives  to  spread  more  and  more  of  its  crown  to  the  light 
and  many  trees  are  crowded  out  and  die. 

(d)  The  Period  of  Declining  Vigor  in  the  Trees. — This 
last  period  is  the  mature  stage  in  the  life  of  the  trees.  Height 
growth  has  practically  ceased  and  the  trunks  are  increasing  in 
diameter  slowly.  The  sidewise  competition  of  the  crowns  will 
have  nearly  stopped  and  the  number  of  trees  in  the  final  stand 
will  practically  have  been  reached.  As  the  crowns  flatten  out 
they  become  thinner  and  allow  more  and  more  sunlight  to 
pass  through  to  the  forest  floor.  Grass,  weeds  and  berry 
bushes  begin  to  come  in.  Seedlings  which  are  able  to  endure 
more  shade  than  the  older  trees  spring  up  beneath  the  trees. 
These  little  trees  are  the  children  of  the  forest.  It  is  on  them 
that  the  future  life  of  the  woodlot  depends.  When  the  old 
parent  trees  die  and  fall  to  the  ground  or  are  harvested,  these 
young  seedlings,  which  have  been  nourished  and  protected  be- 
neath their  crowns,  spring  up  and  take  their  places,  filling  in 
the  spaces  left  in  the  canopy. 

The  trees  are  ripe  for  the  harvest.  If  allowed  to  live  longer 
they  will  become  attacked  by  insects  and  decay  and  be  broken 
by  storms.  As  long  as  trees  are  growing  vigorously  in  youth 
they  are  usually  able  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  enemies. 
Because  of  the  rapid  diameter  growth  wounds  are  closed  over 
quickly  and  insects  are  not  able  to  gain  entrance.  But  with 
the  slower  growth  in  old  age,  wounds  remain  exposed  a  long 
time  to  the  air.  Fungi  which  cause  rot  in  the  wood  gain  en- 
trance and  the  tree  begins  to  decay.  Owing  to  the  weakened 
condition  insects  attack  the  trees  and  burrow  deep  into  the 
wood.  Storms  break  off  the  older  branches  which  have  become 
brittle  with  age.  Many  trees  that  have  become  weakened  by 
disease  are  broken  off  or  uprooted  by  the  wind.  Younger  trees 
grow  up  to  occupy  the  place  of  those  that  have  fallen.  Soon 
all  the  old  trees  will  be  gone,  and  a  new  forest,  composed  of 
younger  trees,  will  take  possession  of  the  soil. 


CHAPTER  VI 

ESTABLISHING  A  WOODLOT  BY  ARTIFICIAL  MEANS, 
EITHER  BY  SEEDING  OR  PLANTING 

Natural  and  Artificial  Reproduction. — Woodlots  are 
started  both  artificially  and  naturally.  They  are  started  arti- 
ficially by  planting  small  trees  grown  for  the  purpose  or  by 
sowing  the  seeds  of  trees.  They  start  naturally  from  seed 
sown  by  the  trees  themselves  or  from  sprouts  from  the  stumps 
of  trees  that  have  been  cut. 

A  field  that  has  been  abandoned  will  soon  be  covered  with 
trees  started  naturally  from  seed  blown  on  the  field  or  dropped 
by  animals  or  birds.  Hardwood  woodlots  from  which  all  the 
trees  have  been  cut  spring  up  rapidly  from  sprouts.  It  is 
common  to  see  in  woodlots  that  have  not  been  grazed  or 
repeatedly  burned  by  fire,  young  trees  that  have  started  from 
seed,  spring  up  beneath  the  older  trees  where  there  is  sufficient 
light.  Nearly  all  our  woodlots  have  been  started  naturally 
either  from  seed  or  from  sprouts. 

There  are  but  few  woodlots  in  the  country  except  on  the 
Great  Plains  and  Prairies  that  have  been  started  by  man. 
Yet  artificial  reproduction,  as  it  is  called,  has  many  advantages 
over  natural  reproduction.  It  is  a  sure  way  of  starting  a 
woodlot,  the  trees  will  be  such  as  the  farmer  wishes  to  grow, 
the  woodlot  will  be  well  stocked  with  trees  from  the  start, 
and  the  trees  will  be  spaced  evenly  and  at  a  proper  distance 
apart.  Its  chief  disadvantage  is  in  its  greater  initial  cost. 
Natural  reproduction  will  often  cost  nothing.  Reproduction 
from  sprouts  is  obtained  at  no  cost  to  the  owner.  Natural  re- 

42 


ESTABLISHING  A  WOODLOT  43 

production  by  seeding  means  sometimes  the  leaving  of  a  few 
seed  trees  per  acre  to  sow  the  seed,  but  the  trees  left  are 
usually  those  that  will  be  of  little  value  for  timber,  and  often 
they  can  be  utilized  later  after  the  seed  has  been  sown.  Often 
natural  reproduction  comes  from  trees  surrounding  the  area 
cut  over.  The  principal  objection  to  natural  reproduction  is 
that  the  trees  that  result  will  be  such  as  nature  selects.  They 
will  be  the  kinds  that  are  able  to  get  started  whether  they  are 
desirable  species  or  not.  Often  the  better  kinds  of  trees  are 
crowded  out  because  the  conditions  of  the  soil  or  the  light 
may  be  more  favorable  for  the  poorer  kinds  of  trees.  Unless 
the  owner  by  cutting  out  such  trees  determines  what  trees 
shall  be  present  in  the  final  stand,  the  result  will  be  a  product 
of  nature,  wild  and  irregular.  Other  objections  are  that  the 
reproduction  is  apt  to  be  more  or  less  bunched  about  the  seed 
trees  or  around  the  edges  of  the  cut-over  area,  so  that  the 
tract  will  not  be  fully  or  evenly  stocked  with  trees.  Yet 
the  natural  method  will  be  the  one  that  will  be  used  commonly 
by  woodlot  owners  except  where  new  woodlots  are  started, 
where  there  are  no  trees  to  sow  the  seed,  as  in  the  Prairie 
region,  or  where  new  species  are  wanted. 

STARTING   A    WOODLOT    BY   DIRECT    SOWING   OF   THE   SEED. 

The  Broadcast  Method. — In  the  broadcast  method  the  seed 
gathered  from  trees  is  scattered  evenly  over  the  area  to  be 
reproduced.  .Usually  some  preparation  of  the  soil  is  made 
before  the  seed  is  sown  or  otherwise  the  conditions  must  be 
favorable,  the  soil  being  moist  and  loose  so  that  the  seeds  will 
not  dry  out  before  they  start  to  germinate.  Where  prep- 
aration of  the  soil  can  be  made  and  the  seed  sown  can  be 
covered  in  some  way  as  by  brush  being  drawn  over  the  area 
or  by  being  raked  or  harrowed  into  the  soil,  good  results  can 
be  obtained.  After  a  woodlot  has  been  cut  over  and  the  min- 
eral soil  is  more  or  less  broken  up  and  exposed  from  logs  being 
dragged  out  of  the  woods,  success  will  often  follow  broadcast 


44  FARM  FORESTRY 

seeding.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  early  spring.  Seed- 
ing on  the  snow  as  it  melts  will  often  give  good  results  with 
some  species.  Broadcasting  after  a  fire  when  the  leaves  and 
weeds  have  been  burned  and  the  mineral  soil  exposed  has  often 
proved  successful  with  some  trees. 

The  Seedspot  Method. — In  the  seedspot  method  the  seed 
is  sown  in  prepared  seed  spots  a  foot  or  more  square.  The 
soil  is  dug  up  and  cultivated  on  these  spots.  The  seed  is  then 
sown  and  covered  well  with  earth.  The  spots  are  usually 
spaced  6  feet  by  6  feet  apart.  Good  results  are  usually  ob- 
tained by  this  method.  Small  seeds  like  pine,  birch  and  elm 
are  very  successfully  planted  in  this  way,  about  20  to  30  seeds 
being  sown  in  each  spot.  Seed  producing  trees  having  tap- 
roots like  walnut,  hickory,  butternut,  chestnut  and  oaks  are 
best  started  by  sowing  the  seed  where  the  trees  are  to  grow. 
With  these  larger  seeds  it  is  usual  to  plant  2  or  3  seeds  in 
each  spot.  More  seeds  are  planted  than  trees  are  wanted  to 
allow  for  failures.  All  seeds  are  not  fertile.  Where  several 
trees  come  up  on  a  seed  spot  they  can  be  thinned  out  and  the 
extra  trees  planted  where  no  trees  have  resulted.  Small  seeds 
should  be  covered  lightly  and  large  seeds  planted  about  twice 
their  diameter  below  the  surface,  and  the  soil  well  firmed 
above  them.  Seed  gathered  from  the  ground  in  the  spring 
where  they  have  been  stratified  naturally  over  winter  can  be 
successfully  planted  in  seed  spots. 

Seeding  in  Strips  or  Furrows. — Instead  of  cultivating  the 
entire  area  previous  to  sowing  the  seed,  strips  across  the 
planting  area  several  feet  wide  and  spaced  an  even  distance 
apart  are  sometimes  prepared  by  plowing  or  otherwise  break- 
ing the  surface  of  the  soil  and  the  seed  sown  broadcast  on  these 
strips.  Often  single  furrows  are  turned  by  a  plow  six  feet 
or  more  apart  and  the  seed  sown  on  the  exposed  soil.  Brush 
drawn  along  the  strips  or  furrows  will  cover  smaller  seeds 
thus  sown.  With  walnuts,  butternuts  and  other  large  seed 
the  sods  can  be  turned  back  into  the  furrow  to  cover  the  seed. 


ESTABLISHING  A  WOODLOT  45 

Large  seeds  are  usually  sown  about  2  or  3  feet  apart  in  the 
furrow  and  the  furrows  run  about  six  feet  apart. 

Direct  seeding  has  the  advantage  of  being  rapid  and  cheap. 
On  the  other  hand  the  seed  may  be  eaten  by  birds,  squirrels, 
mice  or  other  rodents,  or  it  may  be  infertile.  The  small  seed- 
lings that  come  up  the  first  year  may  be  crowded  out  or  sup- 
pressed by  weeds,  grass  or  other  growth,  unless  they  can  be 
cultivated.  Direct  seeding  will  succeed  only  under  favorable 
conditions.  On  poor  sites  and  in  unfavorable  seasons  it  will 
not  prove  successful.  Reproduction  by  seedspots,  however, 
is  a  most  practical  method  and  one  that  can  be  carried  out  to 
good  effect  in  the  woodlot.  Where  the  conditions  have  been 
favorable  good  results  have  been  secured  by  direct  seeding  of 
walnut,  butternut,  ash,  silver  maple,  red  and  burr  oak,  black 
cherry,  and  white,  red,  Scotch  and  pitch  pine.  In  the  West 
large  areas  are  sometimes  broadcasted  with  seed  of  the  conifer- 
ous trees  of  the  region,  often  with  considerable  success. 

STARTING  A   WOODLOT   BY   PLANTING   THE   TREES 

With  most  kinds  of  trees  it  is  best  to  plant  the  seed  in  a 
nursery  and  grow  the  seedlings  for  a  year  or  two  where  they 
can  be  given  proper  care  and  cultivation  during  the  early 
period.  Strong  and  hardy  little  trees  with  stocky  root  sys- 
tems can  be  obtained  in  this  way  that  will  usually  grow  when 
planted  even  on  poor  situations. 

Because  it  is  believed  large  trees  must  be  used  that  can  be 
produced  only  at  great  expense,  is  one  reason  why  more  wood- 
lots  are  not  started  by  planting.  One  or  two  year  old  seed- 
lings that  can  easily  be  raised  by  the  farmer  on  the  farm  are 
the  best  trees  to  use  for  starting  a  woodlot  or  forest  planting. 
It  would  be  of  advantage  to  every  farm  to  have  a  small  forest 
nursery  for  growing  forest  trees  for  starting  forest  plantings 
and  for  filling  in  bare  spots  in  the  woodlot,  and  for  growing 
larger  trees  for  planting  along  the  road  and  about  the  house. 


46  FARM  FORESTRY 

Such  a  tree  nursery  could  well  occupy  a  few  rows  in  the 
vegetable  garden  where  the  young  trees  will  receive  care  and 
cultivation. 

COLLECTING  SEEDS   FOR   PLANTING   IN   THE   NURSERY 

The  seeds  of  forest  trees  for  planting  in  the  nursery  can 
be  purchased  from  seed  dealers  at  small  expense,  but  it  is  in 
many  ways  better  to  gather  the  seed  from  the  trees  when  the 
seed  is  ripe  and  to  keep  it  over  winter  for  planting  in  the 
spring. 

Seed  can  be  gathered  from  trees  in  the  open  much  easier 
and  faster  than  from  trees  in  the  woodlot,  which  bear  seed 
only  on  the  upper  branches.  Seed  from  trees  grown  in  the 
open  will  produce  as  good  timber  trees  as  will  the  seed  from 
forest  grown  trees.  Usually  small  seed  must  be  picked  from 
the  trees  before  it  is  scattered,  while  heavy  seed  can  be  gath- 
ered from  the  ground  after  it  has  fallen.  Seed  should  not 
be  collected  until  it  is  ripe  and  should  be  obtained  from  thrifty 
trees  of  good  form  and  without  disease.  Seed  produced  by 
very  young  trees  is  usually  not  fertile  and  seed  from  the  lower 
branches  is  apt  to  be  less  fertile  than  the  seed  from  higher 
branches.  The  first  seeds  to  fall  are  usually  not  as  good  as 
those  that  mature  later. 

The  time  when  trees  ripen  their  seed  must  be  known.  Some, 
like  the  American  elm,  river  birch,  silver  and  red  maple, 
cottonwood,  poplar  and  willow,  ripen  their  seeds  in  the  spring 
or  early  summer.  Seeds  that  mature  early  in  the  year  will 
not  retain  their  vitality  long,  so  the  seeds  of  these  species 
should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe  and  planted  at  once  in  the 
nursery.  By  Fall  the  seedlings  will  have  grown  considerably 
in  height  and  many  of  them  will  be  large  enough  for  starting 
forest  plantings  the  following  spring. 

Most  other  species  of  trees  mature  their  seed  in  the  fall 
of  the  year.  Such  seed  could  be  planted  at  once  were  it  not 
for  the  danger  of  their  being  destroyed  by  squirrels  or  other 


Photo  by  A&thd?. " 
Seed  can  be  gathered  from  the  sycamore  far  into 
the  winter. 


Photo  by  Author. 

The  small  nursery.     Growing  catalpa  and  black  locust  in  the  garden. 


Planting  forest  trees. 


One  man  digs  the  holes  and  the  other  plants 
the  trees. 


ESTABLISHING  A  WOODLOT  47 

rodents  during  the  winter  or  of  being  washed  out  of  the  soil  by 
rain  or  thrown  out  by  frost.  Fortunately  seed  that  matures  late 
in  the  year  will  retain  its  vitality  over  winter  if  properly  stored. 

Method  of  Storing  Tree  Seeds  over  Winter. — Seeds  like 
maple,  ash,  birch,  tulip,  catalpa,  locust,  coffee  tree,  and  of 
most  of  the  evergreen  trees,  will  retain  their  vitality  over  win- 
ter where  they  are  kept  cool  and  dry.  These  seeds  should  be 
gathered  from  the  trees  in  the  fall.  Many  of  them  hang  on 
the  trees  for  some  time  after  they  ripen,  often  far  into  the 
winter.  The  seed  should  be  placed  in  cloth  bags  and  hung  up 
where  it  will  keep  dry  and  be  exposed  to  the  outside  air  and 
also  be  out  of  reach  of  rodents. 

The  seeds  of  many  of  our  trees  are  apt  to  lose  their  vitality 
if  allowed  to  dry  out  over  winter,  such  as  walnut,  hickory, 
basswood,  boxelder,  sycamore,  oak,  chestnut,  butternut,  osage 
orange  and  black  cherry.  These  seeds  must  be  kept  moist 
over  winter  by  stratifying  them.  All  seeds  will  keep  their 
vitality  better  if  stratified  over  winter.  This  consists  in  mix- 
ing the  seed  with  moist  sand  in  a  box  or  burying  them  in  a 
pit  in  the  ground.  A  layer  of  moist  sand  an  inch  or  two  deep 
is  placed  in  a  box  and  a  layer  of  seed  is  spread  over  it.  With 
large  seed  like  the  oak,  hickory,  walnut,  etc.,  the  layer  of  seed 
should  not  be  more  than  an  inch  deep,  and  with  smaller  seed 
much  less.  The  seed  is  then  covered  or  mixed  with  moist 
sand  and  another  layer  of  seed  spread  over  the  sand  and  so 
on  until  all  the  seed  is  stratified.  Small  seed  can  be  folded  in 
cheese  cloth  and  thus  stratified  between  layers  of  moist  sand. 
The  box  should  then  be  buried  on  a  well  drained  slope,  and 
covered  with  about  six  inches  of  straw  or  leaves  and  the  whole 
covered  with  about  six  inches  of  earth.  The  box  can  be  kept 
in  a  cold  cellar  if  the  sand  is  kept  moist.  Freezing  will  not 
injure  the  seed  but  will  help  to  crack  the  shells  and  otherwise 
hasten  germination.  Hickory,  walnut,  oak  and  other  seed  with 
hard  shells  should  especially  be  allowed  to  freeze.  Where 
stratified  out  of  doors  they  should  be  left  near  the  surface 


48  FARM  FORESTRY 

for  this  purpose,  the  covering  being  made  very  thin.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  let  the  seeds  dry  out  or  allow  squirrels 
or  other  rodents  to  get  at  them.  Where  there  is  danger  of 
the  seeds  being  destroyed  the  box  or  pit  can  be  covered  with 
wire  netting. 

Treatment  of  Seeds  before  Storing. — The  outer  coatings 
of  seeds  that  are  to  be  hung  in  bags  over  winter  should  be 
thoroughly  dried  so  as  to  prevent  molding.  They  should  be 
spread  out  where  they  will  dry  in  the  wind  but  not  in  the  sun. 
Seeds  that  are  produced  in  pods  like  locust,  coffeetree,  and 
catalpa  should  be  removed  from  the  pods,  and  the  outer  husks 
should  be  removed  from  hickory  nuts,  walnuts  and  butternuts. 
The  cones  of  tulip,  birch,  alder  and  evergreen  trees  should  be 
gathered  and  dried  when  the  seed  can  easily  be  shaken  or 
beaten  out.  The  fruit  of  osage  orange,  cherry  and  other  pulpy 
fruits  should  be  placed  in  water  and  allowed  to  ferment. 
The  seed  can  then  easily  be  removed  from  the  fleshy  covering 
by  stirring  or  beating,  and  spread  out  to  dry. 

Treatment  of  Seeds  Before  Planting. — Seeds  that  are 
stored  dry  will  germinate  much  quicker  if  they  are  allowed  to 
soak  several  hours  in  warm  water.  Seeds  of  ash,  tulip,  maple 
and  catalpa  should  be  soaked  for  3  or  4  hours  in  warm  water 
and  should  be  planted  at  once  and  not  allowed  to  dry  out. 
Hard  seeds  like  coffeetree  and  locust  should  be  placed  in 
very  hot  water  and  allowed  to  stand  for  several  days.  The 
seed  that  swells  should  be  planted  at  once  and  the  rest  given 
another  treatment  in  hot  water.  The  seed  of  cedar  is  often 
placed  in  lye  for  a  short  time  to  dissolve  the  waxy  coating 
which  prevents  germination  sometimes  for  several  years. 

Planting  the  Seed  in  the  Nursery. — The  seed  should  be 
planted  in  the  nursery  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  It 
is  usual  to  plant  the  seed  in  rows,  which  should  be  far  enough 
apart  to  allow  for  easy  cultivation.  Small  seeds  can  be  sown 
broadcast  like  lettuce  and  covered  lightly  with  fine  soil.  Acorns 
and  nuts  should  be  sown  two  or  three  inches  apart  in  the  rows, 


ESTABLISHING  A  WOODLOT  49 

while  catalpa,  ash,  maple,  elm  and  locust  should  be  spaced  not 
more  than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  apart.  Seeds  of  low 
fertility  should  be  planted  thickly.  The  tendency  in  plant- 
ing seeds  is  to  plant  too  deep.  A  covering  of  one-fourth  to 
one-half  inch  is  sufficient  for  light  seeds,  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  to.  one  inch  for  boxelder,  tulip,  black  cherry,  ash,  maple, 
locust  and  catalpa,  and  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  for  chest- 
nut, oak  and  other  large  seed.  Seed  should  be  planted  deeper 
on  light  soil  than  on  heavy  soil.  The  soil  should  be  made 
firm  over  the  seeds  so  as  to  conserve  the  moisture,  but  should 
not  be  packed  hard.  Where  there  is  danger  of  the  surface 
drying  out  the  seed  bed  should  be  thoroughly  sprinkled  after 
the  seeds  are  planted  and  covered  with  a  mulch  of  leaves  or 
straw.  This  must  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  seeds  have 
germinated. 

Growing  Trees  from  Cuttings. — Willows  and  poplars  are 
usually  grown  from  cuttings.  These  can  be  made  any  time 
after  the  leaves  fall  or  before  the  spring  growth  begins.  They 
are  usually  made  from  the  growth  of  the  last  year  and  cut 
from  eight  to  twelve  inches  long  with  a  slanting  cut.  Where 
made  in  the  fall  the  cuttings  should  be  bundled  and  buried 
upright  in  moist  sand  in  a  cold  cellar  until  spring.  The  cut- 
tings can  be  started  where  it  is  desired  to  grow  the  trees  or 
they  can  be  set  out  in  the  nursery  in  the  spring  in  rows.  They 
should  be  planted  several  inches  apart  in  the  rows  and  planted 
so  that  not  more  than  one  or  two  buds  appear  and  the  soil 
packed  firmly  around  them.  After  growing  a  year  in  the 
nursery  they  can  be  set  out  in  the  woodlot.  Basket  willows 
are  started  in  this  way,  the  cuttings  being  set  permanently  in 
rows  about  18  inches  apart  and  about  8  inches  apart  in  the 
rows. 

Tending  the  Nursery. — The  seedlings  should  be  cultivated 
during  the  growing  season  the  same  as  any  garden  crop.  The 
weeds  must  be  kept  down  and  the  soil  frequently  loosened 
with  the  cultivator  or  hoe  to  conserve  moisture.  During  very 


50  FARM  FORESTRY 

dry  seasons  the  nursery  rows  should  be  moistened  if  it  is  seen 
that  the  seedlings  are  suffering.  Mulching  between  the  rows 
will  be  found  to  work  well  in  many  cases.  The  seedlings 
should  be  protected  during  the  first  winter  by  mulching  with 
straw  or  leaves.  The  seedlings  of  broadleaf  trees  will  be 
large  enough  for  planting  the  spring  following  the  seeding. 

Growing  Evergreen  Seedlings. — The  raising  of  evergreen 
seedlings  is  much  more  difficult  than  the  raising  of  seedlings 
of  broadleaf  trees.  They  must  be  shielded  from  the  hot  sun 
during  the  first  year  and  are  likely  to  be  killed  by  disease. 
Where  it  is  desired  to  grow  evergreen  seedlings  it  will  be 
better  to  purchase  one  or  two  year  old  seedlings  from  nursery- 
men and  set  them  out  in  the  nursery  to  grow  for  a  year  or  two 
before  planting. 

The  seed  of  coniferous  or  evergreen  trees  like  pines, 
spruces,  firs,  etc.,  are  broadcasted  on  specially  prepared  seed- 
beds usually  made  4  feet  wide  and  12  or  more  feet  long. 
The  soil  is  fertilized  and  worked  with  care  so  that  it  is  the 
same  degree  of  fineness  throughout.  The  seed  is  then  sown 
thinly  over  the  surface  at  the  rate  of  about  an  ounce  to  5  or  6 
square  feet.  The  bed  is  then  rolled  and  the  seed  just  covered 
by  sifting  fine  dirt  or  sand  over  the  bed.  The  beds  are  then 
thoroughly  soaked  with  water  and  covered  with  a  mulch  of 
straw  or  leaves  or  other  material  until  the  seed  has  germinated. 
The  mulch  is  then  removed  and  the  bed  covered  with  a  lath 
screen  that  allows  half  shade,  elevated  about  a  foot  above 
the  beds.  The  great  danger  in  growing  coniferous  seedlings 
is  that  when  the  seedlings  have  come  out  of  the  ground  they 
are  likely  to  be  killed  by  the  damping  off  fungus.  This  can 
be  controlled  only  with  great  care  and  attention,  by  removing 
the  screens  and  drying  the  surface  soil  when  the  fungus  gets 
started  and  digging  out  the  portions  of  the  bed  affected.  As 
has  been  said,  it  is  better  to  purchase  one  year  old  seedlings 
from'  nurserymen  and  set  out  in  rows  in  the  nursery  for  a 
year  or  two.  They  will  cost  about  $2.00  or  $2.50  per  thousand. 


Waste  land  should  be  planted  with  forest  trees. 

should  lie  idle. 


No  land  on  the  farm 


c    c  c    .  0'    u       AE.  evsnt  q,ged<woodlot  of  white  and  Norway  pine. 


ESTABLISHING  A  WOODLOT  51 

Use  of  Wild  Stock. — Seedlings  of  trees  for  planting  can 
often  be  dug  up  on  the  edges  or  in  openings  in  the  woods  or 
along  roads  and  under  trees  in  the  open.  This  is  known  as 
wild  stock.  If  planted  out  at  once  the  seedlings  are  not  likely 
to  live,  because  seedling's  grown  naturally  produce  very  spread- 
ing root  systems.  When  they  are  dug  up  a  large  portion  of 
the  roots  is  destroyed.  If  planted  in  the  nursery  for  a  year 
where  they  can  be  cultivated  and  cared  for,  new  roots  will 
be  formed,  making  a  hardy  tree  that  can  safely  be  planted 
out  in  the  field  or  woodlot.  Thousands  of  seedlings  of  trees 
are  often  seen  growing  in  this  way  that  can  be  collected  at 
no  cost  except  the  labor  of  gathering  them.  It  must  be  re- 
membered in  gathering  wild  stock  that  the  conditions  under 
which  a  tree  grows  can  not  be  changed  suddenly  or  the  tree 
will  die.  Seedlings  should  not  be  dug  from  shady  situations 
and  planted  in  the  sun. 

THE  TIME  OF   PLANTING   THE    SEEDLINGS 

The  best  time  to  start  the  planting  is  early  in  the  spring, 
as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked  and  before  the  spring 
rains.  Hardwood  trees  should  be  planted  before  the  buds 
have  opened;  evergreens  before  the  new  growth  has  started. 
Fall  planting  is  sometimes  practiced,  especially  where  the 
moist  season  comes  in  the  fall  of  the  year  instead  of  the  spring. 
Seedlings  planted  in  the  fall  are  in  danger  of  being  heaved 
out  of  the  soil  by  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  and  the  roots 
not  having  a  good  hold  on  the  ground  and  being  unable  to 
absorb  moisture  readily  may  be  winterkilled.  Planted  in  the 
spring  the  seedlings  begin  to  grow  at  once  and  get  a  hold  on 
the  soil,  and  unless  a  very  dry  season  follows  the  planting 
most  of  the  trees  will  live.  Where  the  planting  is  started  by 
sowing  the  seed  directly  where  the  trees  are  to  grow,  the  seed 
is  kept  over  winter,  as  has  been  described,  and  planted  early 
in  the  spring,  but  seed  that  ripens  in  the  spring  of  the  year 
should  be  planted  at  once.  Cloudy  days  should  be  chosen 


52  FARM  FORESTRY 

for  the  work  of  planting.  Transplanting  is  a  shock  to  the 
young  trees  and  all  conditions  must  be  made  as  favorable  as 
possible. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — Better  results  will  be  obtained  if 
the  planting  site  is  thoroughly  cultivated  before  setting  the 
trees.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  Middle  West  where  the 
heavy  grass  sods  will  quickly  kill  out  the  little  trees.  "Thor- 
ough cultivation  of  the  soil  conserves  moisture,  facilitates  the 
planting  of  the  trees,  induces  rapid  growth,  and  increases  the 
proportion  of  successful  trees.  Where  the  soil  is  favorable 
and  where  there  is  not  a  heavy  sod  of  grass  or  cover  of  weeds, 
preparation  is  not  always  necessary.  In  the  eastern  part  of 
the  country  with  its  moist  climate  it  is  rarely  that  cultivation 
of  the  soil  previous  to  planting  is  necessary.  It  is  only  where 
the  conditions  are  not  favorable  to  tree  growth  that  it  would 
be  recommended. 

Spacing  the  Trees  in  the  Planting. — The  distance  apart 
the  trees  should  be  planted  will  depend  largely  on  the  species 
of  tree  used  and  on  the  character  of  the  site  to  be  planted. 
Tolerant  trees,  or  those  that  will  stand  considerable  shade,  can 
be  planted  closer  together  than  intolerant  trees.  Close  plant- 
ing should  be  used  where  the  site  is  unfavorable.  Fast-grow- 
ing trees  should  be  planted  farther  apart  than  slow-growing 
trees.  In  general  most  trees  should  not  be  spaced  farther  apart 
than  5  or  6  feet.  The  reason  for  planting  the  trees  so  closely 
together  is  to  get  the  ground  covered  as  quickly  as  possible 
by  the  crowns,  so  that  the  trees  will  protect  the  soil  and  each 
other  from  the  sun  and  from  cold  and  drying  winds,  and 
bring  about  forest  conditions  rapidly.  Close  spacing  also 
causes  the  early  death  of  lower  branches  of  the  trees  before 
they  become  large.  It  causes  rapid  height  growth  in  trees 
and  produces  long  and  cylindrical  trunks.  Wide  spacing  usually 
results  in  more  branchy  trees  with  thicker  trunks.  Where  the 
seedlings  are  planted  among  the  stumps  of  trees  or  in  brush  a 
wider  spacing  will  often  be  necessary. 


ESTABLISHING  A  WOODLOT 


53 


SPACING  TO  BE  FOLLOWED  IN  FOREST  PLANTATION 

From  Farmers'  Bulletin  711 
Spacing  in  feet. 


12  by  12 

8  by  8 

7  by  7 

6  by  6 

S  by  5 

4  by  S 

Number  of  Trees  Required  per  Acre 


303 

680 

889 

1210 

1743 

2178 

Cotton- 
wood. 

Yellow 
poplar. 

Short  leaf  pine. 
Chestnut. 

White  pine. 
Red  pine. 

Hickory. 
White  oak. 

Hard  maple. 
Yellow  birch. 

Red  gum. 

Black  locust. 

Red  oak. 

Chestnut  oak. 

Beech. 

Loblolly 

Bald  cypress. 

Black  oak. 

Burr  oak. 

White  spruce 

pine. 

Black  walnut. 

Post  oak. 

Red  spruce. 

White  ash. 

Red  elm. 

Fir. 

Basswood. 

How  to  Plant  the  Trees. — The  seedlings  should  not  be 
pulled  up  from  the  nursery,  but  should  be  lifted  with  a  spade, 
so  as  not  to  strip  the  tender  bark  from  the  roots.  They 
should  be  placed  at  once  in  pails  with  several  inches  of  water 
in  them,  so  that  the  roots  will  be  kept  moist  all  the  time.  The 
trees  can  also  be  placed  in  baskets,  provided  the  roots  are 
kept  covered  at  all  times  with  wet  moss  and  only  one  seedling 
removed  at  a  time  for  planting.  When  the  planting  site  is  at 
a  distance  from  the  nursery  the  seedlings  can  be  tied  loosely 
in  bundles  to  facilitate  handling  them.  The  roots  should  be 
puddled  in  thin  mud,  so  that  they  will  become  coated,  and  the 
bundles  healed  in  or  planted  firmly  in  shallow  trenches  so  that 
the  roots  are  well  covered,  until  time  to  ship  them.  In  ship- 
ping, the  roots  should  be  packed  firmly  in  wet  moss,  leaves, 
straw  or  moist  earth,  so  as  to  exclude  air  and  keep  the  roots 
moist.  When  the  seedlings  reach  the  planting  site  they  should 
be  healed  in  as  before  until  needed  for  planting.  Great  care 
must  be  used  with  coniferous  seedlings,  for  exposure  of  the 
roots  to  the  sun  and  wind,  even  for  a  few  minutes,  will  usually 
kill  them.  A  seedling  should  not  be  lifted  from  the  pail  until 
it  is  ready  to  be  planted. 

There  are  several  methods  of  planting  seedlings.     In  gen- 


54  FARM  FORESTRY 

eral  the  seedlings  should  be  set  in  the  ground  at  about  the 
same  depth  that  they  stood  in  the  nursery.  The  soil  should  be 
pressed  in  against  the  roots  as  well  as  downward,  so  that  no 
air  spaces  will  be  left,  and  the  roots  placed  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  a  natural  position.  The  earth  should  be  made  firm 
about  the  trees. 

With  small  trees  the  slit  method  is  often  used  with  success. 
This  consists  in  thrusting  a  spade  or  grub  hoe  in  the  ground 
and  working  it  back  and  forth  so  that  a  wedge-shaped  hole  is 
made.  The  roots  of  the  seedling  are  then  inserted  back  of  the 
spade  in  the  cleft  thus  formed.  The  spade  is  removed  and 
the  earth  pressed  with  the  foot  firmly  against  the  plant.  This 
is  a  very  rapid  method  and  fairly  cheap  and  successful  where 
the  soil  is  not  too  dry  or  poor.  Care  must  be  taken  to  get 
the  roots  deep  down  in  the  cleft.  A  folded  root  will  usually 
die. 

The  surest  method  is  the  individual  hole  method.  The 
grass  and  weeds  are  stripped  off  a  spot  about  12  to  18  inches 
square  with  the  grub  hoe  or  mattock,  a  hole  is  dug  in  the  center 
and  the  tree  planted  by  hand,  the  roots  being  spread  out  in 
a  natural  position.  Long  straggly  or  broken  roots  should  be 
pruned  off  neatly.  This  is  a  slower  and  more  expensive 
method  than  the  slit  method,  but  it  is  more  successful, 
especially  where  the  conditions  are  not  very  good.  With  larger 
seedlings  it  is  the  only  method  that  can  be  used  successfully. 

Trees  are  sometimes  planted  in  plowed  furrows.  A  furrow 
is  turned  and  the  trees  placed  upright  against  the  side.  The 
sods  can  then  be  thrown  back  in  the  furrow  and  pressed 
against  the  trees  by  treading,  or  a  second  furrow  can  be  made 
to  throw  the  sods  against  the  roots.  This  is  a  rapid  and 
very  cheap  method,  and  in  good  soil  has  proved  successful 
with  many  kinds  of  trees,  such  as  cottonwood,  maple,  ash,  and 
also  with  pine  and  spruce.  It  is  especially  applicable  with 
poplar  and  willow  cuttings. 

The  usual  method  of  planting  is  for  the  men  to  work  in 


ESTABLISHING  A  WOODLOT  55 

crews  of  two.  One  man  digs  the  hole  with  a  mattock  and  a 
second  man  follows  planting  the  seedlings.  A  line  of  stakes 
is  sometimes  set  across  the  field  to  give  the  line  of  site.  Where 
several  crews  are  planting  together  the  first  crew  gives  the  line 
and  the  other  crews  plant  the  trees  in  rows  spaced  an  equal 
distance  apart.  Usually  no  attempt  is  made  to  keep  the  rows 
exactly  straight. 

The  Cost  of  Planting. — Planting  usually  costs  from  $6.00 
to  $12.00  an  acre,  depending  on  the  cost  of  seedlings  and  of 
labor  and  the  method  of  planting  used.  Two  men  should 
plant  from  a  half  acre  to  an  acre  a  day,  depending  on  the 
method  of  planting  and  the  size  of  the  seedlings  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  and  the  planting  area.  If  the  trees  are  raised 
in  the  farm  nursery  or  wild  stock  is  used,  and  if  the  trees  are 
planted  with  the  farm  help,  the  cost  of  establishing  the  plan- 
tation will  be  very  small. 


CHAPTER  VII 
TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS 

THE  selection  of  the  trees  to  plant  in  starting  a  woodlot 
or  forest  planting  is  an  important  consideration.  It  may  take 
several  years  to  show  that  trees  are  not  adapted  to  a  certain 
region  or  situation  or  soil.  The  ordinary  planter  cannot  afford 
to  experiment  with  trees.  The  loss  of  many  years  may  result 
from  a  wrong  choice.  Trees  must  be  adapted  to  the  conditions 
under  which  they  are  planted  or  they  will  not  thrive. 

The  following  points  should  be  considered  in  the  selection 
of  the  trees  to  plant : 

Is  the  tree  hardy  in  the  climate  where  it  is  to  be  planted  ? 
Many  trees  grow  well  within  the  natural  range  of  their  distri- 
bution. Few  trees  will  grow  well  far  outside  of  the  range. 
This  is  because  a  tree  cannot  change  its  habits  of  growth  to 
conform  to  a  new  climate.  Retaining  its  old  schedule  of 
growth,  it  may  leaf  out  too  early  in  the  spring  or  continue  its 
growth  too  late  in  the  fall  and  so  be  frostbitten.  Trees  from 
a  region  where  the  air  is  moist  will  not  grow  in  a  region  of 
dry  air.  Trees  from  the  Pacific  coast  will  not  thrive  in  the 
East  because  of  this  fact. 

Is  the  tree  adapted  to  the  situation  ?  Trees  that  will  do  well 
in  lowlands  will  not  thrive  when  planted  on  upland  regions. 
Trees  from  high  altitudes  will  not  thrive  in  low  land.  In  the 
same  region  a  matter  of  a  few  feet  often  determines  the  char- 
acter and  kinds  of  trees  that  will  grow,  because  of  a  difference 
in  the  moisture  conditions.  Exposure  to  wind  and  frost  is  an 
important  factor  in  tree  life.  In  the  same  region  the  same  trees 

56 


I 


TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS  57 

are  rarely  found  growing  on  both  a  steep  north  and  southern 
slope. 

Is  the  tree  suited  to  the  soil  ?  Although  soil  does  not  affect 
trees  to  the  same  extent  as  agricultural  crops,  the  kind  of  soil 
is  important  with  many  species.  Some  trees  demand  a  moist 
fertile  soil  and  will  not  grow  well  on  any  other  kind.  Whether 
the  soil  is  limestone  or  of  granite  origin  may  determine  in  large 
measure  the  kinds  of  trees  that  will  grow. 

Will  the  tree  selected  when  grown  serve  the  purpose  de- 
sired? Trees  are  grown  in  a  woodlot  for  definite  purposes, 
either  for  lumber,  or  fuel  or  fence  posts  or  other  uses.  Will 
the  form  and  size  of  the  tree  when  grown  and  the  character 
of  the  wood  be  suited  for  the  particular  use  for  which  it  is 
grown  ?  Is  the  tree  of  fast  enough  growth  to  give  the  product 
desired  in  a  reasonable  time?  With  trees  that  are  suited  to 
the  climate  and  situation,  these  questions  become  of  prime  im- 
portance to  the  woodlot  planter. 

Are  the  trees  subject  to  attacks  by  insects  or  disease? 
There  are  certain  kinds  of  trees  that  are  known  to  be  seriously 
damaged  and  often  killed  by  attacks  of  insects.  There  are  also 
trees  that  are  subject  to  fungus  diseases.  Only  those  trees 
that  are  able  to  withstand  such  attacks  should  be  selected. 

The  Use  of  Trees  Native  to  a  Region. — Not  all  the  trees 
that  grow  naturally  in  any  particular  region  are  suited  for 
planting  in  woodlots.  Many  of  them  have  too  slow  growth, 
or  do  not  grow  to  large  enough  size,  or  do  not  produce  wood 
that  is  of  value  for  use  on  the  farm.  There  are,  however,  no 
better  trees  to  plant  in  any  region  than  those  that  grow  nat- 
urally in  that  region,  provided  they  will  give  the  product 
desired.  Such  trees  are  suited  to  the  climate  and  the  con- 
ditions. No  mistake  can  be  made  in  their  use. 

In  choosing  a  native  tree  to  plant  on  a  particular  site  no 
mistake  can  be  made  in  following  nature.  The  trees  found 
growing  vigorously  on  a  site  similar  to  the  one  to  be  planted 
should  be  selected.  Trees  will  rarely  do  well  on  a  site  poorer 


58  FARM  FORESTRY 

than  that  on  which  they  naturally  grow.  ( )n  the  other  hand, 
almost  any  tree  will  thrive  under  good  soil  and  moisture  con- 
ditions. 

The  Use  of  Trees  from  Other  Regions  of  the  Country. — 
There  are  many  trees  not  native  to  a  region  but  which  grow 
well  in  some  other  portion  of  the  country  that  can  safely  be 
planted.  We  often  find  growing  around  farm  homes  trees 
not  native  to  the  region  that  have  made  good  growth,  and  that 
have  shown  that  they  are  suited  to  the  climate.  Such  example? 
are  worthy  of  notice.  Where  such  trees  give  the  product 
desired  they  can  safely  be  planted  in  the  woodlot. 

The  Use  of  Foreign  Trees. — There  are  many  foreign  trees 
that  have  been  long  in  use  in  this  country  in  many  regions 
for  ornamental  purpose  j.  Some  of  them  have  made  good 
growth  and  seem  to  be  adapted  to  the  climate.  A  number  of 
them  have  been  used  for  forest  plantings.  Norway  spruce, 
European  larch,  Scotch  pine,  and  Austrian  pine  have  been 
planted  for  this  purpose.  It  is  a  question  whether  foreign 
trees  will  in  general  prove  as  valuable  as  those  that  are  native 
to  the  country. 

Trees  have  been  planted  experimentally  for  many  years 
in  nearly  every  region,  and  the  trees  suited  to  the  climate  and 
those  that  are  not  have  been  fairly  well  worked  out.  Infor- 
mation in  regard  to  the  trees  to  plant  can  be  obtained  from 
the  State  Forester  or  from  the  State  Agricultural  College. 

ADVANTAGES    OF    MIXED    PLANTATIONS 

Mixtures  are  sometimes  made  of  forest  trees  in  planting, 
often  with  greater  success  than  where  species  are  planted  pure. 

The  advantages  of  planting  two  or  more  kinds  of  trees  in 
mixture  are  as  follows  : 

i.  It  enables  the  production  of  more  than  one  kind  of 
wood.  Farmers  need  wood  for  construction  purposes  and 
for  fence  posts,  fuel,  stakes,  etc.  There  are  but  few  species 
of  trees  that  will  furnish  a  wood  suitable  for  all  these  uses 


White  pine  used  as  a  windbreak. 


TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS  59 

A  mixture  of  a  coniferous  tree  giving  a  soft  construction  wood 
and  a  hardwood  suitable  for  fuel  and  fence  posts  would  serve 
the  farm  better  than  a  single  species. 

2.  Many  trees  have  light  foliage  and  when  planted  in  pure 
stands  do  not  shade  the  soil  sufficiently  to  keep  out  a  rank 
growth -of  grass  and  weeds.     In  this  case  a  mixture  of  trees 
will  furnish  greater  shade  and  bring  about  and  maintain  better 
forest  conditions  on  the  floor.     Trees  with  light  foliage  are 
often  underplanted  with  more  tolerant  trees  for  these  purposes. 

3.  Some  trees  should  be  spaced  widely  apart  in  order  that 
fast  growth  will  be  secured  before  the  crowns  of  the  individual 
trees  come  together  to  form  the  canopy.    Larch,  cottonwood, 
white  pine  and  black  walnut  often  do  better  with  a  wide  spac- 
ing.   In  this  case  the  final  yield  can  be  considerably  increased 
and  better  forest  conditions  secured  by  filling  in  the  spaces 
between  the  trees  after  they  are  well  started  with  some  other 
kind  of  tree. 

4.  Often  a  mixture  of  trees  will  lessen  the  expense  of  the 
planting.    Norway  pine,  European  larch,  white  pine  and  many 
other  nursery  grown  trees  are  expensive.     Transplants  often 
cost  from  $5  to  $10  or  more  a  thousand.     In  planting  them  a 
cheaper  tree  called  a  filler  can  be  used  like  the  maple,  either 
planting  the  trees  in  alternate  rows  or  planting  first  a  maple 
and  then  one  of  the  other  trees  throughout  each  row.     In 
this  way  only  half  the  usual  number  of  the  expensive  tree  will 
be  needed.     The  cheaper  tree  can  be  removed  later  in  thin- 
nings.   Wild  stock  or  seedlings  that  have  been  seeded  naturally 
can  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

5.  A  mixed  stand  is  less  apt  to  be  badly  damaged  by  in- 
sect attacks  or  fungus  diseases.    With  pure  stands  insects  and 
diseases  spread  rapidly.     In  a  mixed  stand  insects  will  repro- 
duce less  rapidly  and  insects  and  diseases  will  spread  more 
slowly  from  tree  to  tree  than  in  pure  stands.     Should  one 
species  be  destroyed  the  other  species,  if  hardy,  will  develop 
and  form  the  future  stand. 


60  FARM  FORESTRY 

The  following  mixtures,  taken  from  Bulletin  153  of  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  should  prove  successful  on 
soils  adapted  to  both  species : 

1.  Cottonwood  and  silver  maple. 

2.  Cottonwood  and  Norway  spruce. 

3.  Cottonwood  and  white  spruce. 

4.  Cottonwood  and  green  ash. 

5.  European  larch  and  red  oak. 

6.  European  larch  and  white  pine. 

7.  European  larch  and  white  spruce. 

8.  European  larch  and  Norway  spruce. 

9.  White  pine  and  Scotch  pine. 

10.  White  pine  and  Norway  pine. 

11.  White  pine  and  hard  maple. 

12.  White  pine  and  red  oak. 

13.  Black  walnut  and  white  spruce. 

14.  Old  open  stands  of  black  walnut  underplanted   with 
white  pine  and  of  soft  maple  with  white  spruce. 

Many  Trees  can  be  Widely  Planted. — With  the  exception 
of  the  Prairie  region  with  its  scanty  rainfall  and  the  northern 
portions  of  the  Lake  States  and  the  Spruce  region  of  New 
England  with  their  severe  winters,  the  climate  throughout  the 
northern  and  eastern  portions  of  the  country  does  not  differ 
materially.  Over  the  whole  area  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  to 
support  tree  growth,  and  the  growing  season  is  long  enough 
to  mature  many  species.  Many  of  the  species  found  growing 
in  the  southern  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  states  will 
also  be  found  growing  in  the  Central  Hardwood  Region. 
Because  of  these  facts  most  of  the  trees  found  growing 
naturally  in  one  region  will  also  be  found  on  sites  suited  to 
them  in  other  regions  or  will  have  been  widely  scattered  by 
planting.  There  are  but  few  trees  that  will  do  well  only  in 
restricted  regions  in  this  part  of  the  country.  Catalpa  is  an 
example  of  this.  It  grows  naturally  along  the  bottomlands 
of  the  lower  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers  and  is  badly  dam- 


TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS  61 

aged  by  severe  winters  if  planted  far  outside  its  natural  range. 
Over  this  region  in  general  the  question  of  the  selection  of  the 
trees  to  plant  is  not  primarily  one  based  on  climate,  but  rather 
on  soil  conditions  or  site  or  on  the  product  desired.  A  third 
factor  often  becomes  of  prime  importance — that  of  the  hardi- 
ness of-  the  tree  to  insect  and  fungous  attacks.  Often  the 
best  tree  to  plant  for  a  particular  purpose  cannot  be  used  for 
these  reasons.  For  example,  there  is  no  better  tree  to  plant 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  region  than  the  white  pine  for 
lumber.  The  white  pine  weevil  which  kills  the  leaders  of  the 
trees  already  makes  the  use  of  this  tree  impossible  in  many 
places.  It  is  also  likely  to  be  killed  by  the  blister  rust  should 
it  become  widespread.  European  larch,  which  furnishes  a 
wood  particularly  well  adapted  to  farm  purposes,  being  a 
fairly  durable  wood  and  strong,  cannot  be  used  generally 
because  of  the  larch  saw  fly  that  defoliates  the  trees,  thus 
killing  them.  Black  locust  would  be  the  best  tree  to  plant  by 
farmers  for  fence  posts  and  fuel  were  it  not  for  the  locust 
borer  which  riddles  the  wood.  Chestnut  throughout  its  natural 
range  has  probably  been  the  most  serviceable  wood  to  farmers, 
furnishing  fence  posts,  fuel,  poles  and  lumber.  The  chestnut 
blight  prevents  its  being  planted  or  favored.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  some  of  the  best  trees  for  the  farm  woodlot  cannot  be 
advised  for  general  use.  Trees  not  hardy  to  insect  and  fungous 
attacks  should  be  planted  only  after  thorough  investigation  of 
conditions. 

Trees  to  Plant  for  Lumber  and  Fence  Posts. — For  the 
production  of  lumber,  trees  should  be  planted  that  have  fast 
growth  and  a  soft,  light,  easily-worked  wood,  and  one  that 
will  not  warp  or  twist  excessively  in  use.  In  general  the  con- 
iferous woods  fulfill  these  conditions.  Red  pine,  white  pine, 
Scotch  pine,  European  larch,  Norway  spruce  and  white  spruce 
have  been  planted  extensively.  Douglas  fir  and  western  yellow 
pine  are  also  coming  into  use  and  may  prove  of  value.  Among 
the  hardwoods  there  are  many  trees  that  furnish  valuable 


62  FAEM  FORESTRY 

wood  for  lumber  for  one  purpose  or  another — chestnut,  white 
ash,  yellow  poplar,  red  oak,  black  walnut,  American  elm,  and 
sugar  maple  are  hardy  trees  and  can  be  planted  generally. 

For  fence  posts  a  tree  that  furnishes  a  durable  wood  should 
be  selected.  Red  cedar,  white  oak,  black  locust  and  chestnut 
have  been  valuable  fence  pose  trees.  Red  cedar  and  white  oak 
are  of  too  slow  growth  to  grow  for  this  purpose  and  the  black 
locust  and  chestnut  cannot  be  recommended  for  general  plant- 
ing because  of  the  insects  and  diseases  that  attack  them. 
Catalpa  has  been  planted  generally,  but  has  seldom  been  suc- 
cessful. It  succeeds  only  on  the  best  of  soil  and  moisture 
conditions.  European  larch  is  subject  to  the  saw  fly.  There 
are  but  few  other  trees  of  durable  woods  that  can  be  recom- 
mended. Honey  locust,  coffeetree  and  osage  orange  have 
durable  woods  and  can  be  widely  planted  throughout  the 
region.  Almost  any  tree  could  be  grown  for  fence  posts  if 
the  wood  were  durable.  Cottonwood  is  probably  the  fastest 
growing  tree  that  could  be  planted,  but  as  fence  posts  the 
wood  will  last  but  2  or  3  years  in  the  ground.  Such  wood 
can,  however,  be  given  a  preservative  treatment,  as  explained 
in  a  subsequent  chapter.  When  so  treated  a  perishable  wood 
will  last  much  longer  usually  than  the  most  durable  of  woods. 

FOREST    PLANTING    IN    EASTERN    REGIONS 

The  Spruce  Region. — This  region  comprises  the  northern 
part  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont,  and  the  Adiron- 
dack and  Catskill  Mountains  of  New  York  and  the  surround- 
ing hilly  lands.  Red  spruce  is  the  predominant  tree,  growing 
pure  and  in  mixture  with  hardwoods  and  other  conifers. 
Beech,  birch  and  maple  are  the  chief  hardwoods,  and  besides 
the  red  spruce  are  found  white  and  black  spruce,  hemlock 
and  balsam  fir.  The  topography  is  rugged.  In  the  northern 
portion,  because  of  the  excellent  natural  reproduction  of  the 
spruce,  it  will  be  relied  on  to  reforest  cutover  areas.  Where 


TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS  63 

extensive  burns  have  destroyed  the  trees  planting  will  be 
necessary.  The  native  white  spruce  will  do  well  planted  in 
pure  stands.  It  is  easily  grown  in  nurseries.  Three  year  old 
transplants  should  be  used  spaced  6  feet  by  6  feet.  The  Nor- 
way spruce  has  been  used  extensively  for  this  purpose.  There 
are  many  abandoned  fields  in  the  region  on  which  it  will  be 
advisable  to  plant  spruce  for  pulpwood  and  lumber.  The 
southern  portion  of  the  region  is  hilly  rather  than  mountain- 
ous. The  soils  are  much  better,  a  large  percentage  being 
devoted  to  agriculture.  The  forests  are  broken  up  into  small- 
sized  areas,  there  being  many  farm  woodlots.  The  same 
species  are  found  as  in  the  northern  portion,  but  in  different 
proportions,  and  in  addition  several  trees  occur  that  creep 
up  from  the  south,  such  as  red  oak,  ash  and  basswood.  Sugar 
maple  often  forms  a  large  part  of  the  forest  on  the  better 
soils.  It  is  often  grown  for  the  production  of  maple  sugar. 
Plantings  should  be  made  on  the  old  fields,  of  which  there 
are  a  large  number,  and  to  fill  in  and  restock  wornout  wood- 
lots  and  those  containing  inferior  species.  The  better  kinds 
of  hardwoods  native  to  the  region  can  be  used  for  planting 
for  cordwood  and  posts,  and  for  lumber  Norway  pine,  white 
pine,  white  spruce  and  Norway  spruce. 

The  White  Pine  Region  of  the  Northeast. — This  comprises 
southeastern  Maine,  most  of  Massachusetts,  northeast  Con- 
necticut and  the  central  portions  of  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. White  pine  is  the  typical  tree  of  the  region,  it  being 
in  its  optimum  region.  It  is  often  found  growing  pure, 
especially  on  the  poorer  soils,  and  is  usually  mixed  with  many 
hardwood  trees  on  the  better  soils  as  well  as  with  other  coni- 
fers. The  region  contains  a  large  percentage  of  agricultural 
soils.  In  Pennsylvania  there  are  many  extensive  and  con- 
tinuous mountain  forests  and  much  burned-over  waste  lands. 
There  are  many  abandoned  fields,  and  a  farm  is  rare  that 
does  not  have  some  land  better  suited  for  growing  forest 
trees  than  for  farm  crops.  White  pine  would  be  the  natural 


64  FARM  FORESTRY 

tree  for  planting  in  the  region.  Owing  to  the  white  pine  weevil 
which  kills  the  leaders  of  the  trees,  making  them  branchy  and 
bushy  in  form,  and  also  because  of  the  danger  of  the  spread- 
ing of  the  white  pine  blister  rust,  a  recently  introduced  disease, 
much  similar  in  its  effect  to  the  chestnut  blight,  it  should  be 
planted  with  caution.  Where  it  can  be  grown  there  is  probably 
no  tree  that  will  give  better  results.  The  Norway  or  red  pine 
being  a  hardy  tree  and  not  as  susceptible  to  insect  and  fungous 
attacks  can  be  used  in  place  of  the  white  pine.  It  grows  nearly 
as  fast  as  the  white  pine  and  its  wood  is  much  similar  in 
character.  It  will  also  grow  on  drier  situations.  It  should 
be  planted  pure  spaced  6  feet  by  6  feet  apart  or  mixed  with 
the  white  pine  in  alternate  rows.  Several  foreign  trees  have 
been  used  for  plantings.  Scotch  pine  has  been  advised  for 
the  drier  soils.  Norway  spruce  and  European  larch  have  also 
been  used.  Many  of  the  native  hardwoods  can  be  planted 
successfully  where  the  conditions  are  favorable  to  them, 
especially  sugar  maple,  basswood,  white  ash,  red  oak,  black 
walnut,  yellow  poplar  and  cottonwood. 

Southern  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States. — 
This  is  mainly  a  hardwood  region.  It  is  the  meeting  ground 
of  northern  and  southern  trees,  so  that  the  forests  and  wood- 
lots  contain  many  species.  Among  the  conifers  found  are 
white,  Norway  and  pitch  pines,  red  cedar  and  hemlock,  and 
among  the  hardwoods  sugar  maple,  birch,  beech,  many  oaks, 
white  ash,  chestnut,  hickory,  yellow  poplar,  basswood,  walnut, 
elm,  and  others  of  lesser  importance.  Woodlots  are  a  valuable 
source  of  timber  supply.  In  general  it  is  a  region  of  many 
markets  for  the  products  of  the  woodlot,  and  the  planting  and 
care  of  woodlots  should  be  profitable.  For  lumber  Norway 
pine,  Scotch  pine,  white  pine,  white  and  European  spruce, 
and  European  larch  have  been  recommended,  and  also  cotton- 
wood,  yellow  poplar,  basswood,  and  red  oak.  For  fence  posts 
black  locust,  where  not  subject  to  the  borer,  honey  locust  and 
coffeetree  have  durable  woods  and  can  be  used.  Chestnut 


TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS  65 

grows  well  in  the  region  and  would,  of  course,  be  the  best  tree 
to  plant  were  it  not  for  the  chestnut  bark  disease.  European 
larch  can  also  be  planted  where  not  subject  to  the  saw  fly. 

The  Lake  States  Region. — This  region  occupies  the  greater 
part  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota.  Magnificent 
stands  of  white  pine  formerly  grew  in  this  region,  and  also  of 
Norway  pine  and  jack  pine.  On  the  better  class  of  soils  many 
hardwoods  are  found  like  sugar  maple,  yellow  birch,  white 
ash,  red  oak,  burr  oak,  basswood,  poplar  and  paper  birch. 
Hemlock  occurs  mixed  with  other  species,  and  there  is  also 
some  American  larch  and  northern  white  cedar.  There  is  a 
very  large  amount  of  cut-over  and  burned  land  in  the  region 
in  need  of  reforestation.  Probably  only  about  10  per  cent  of 
the  whole  region  is  under  cultivation.  Owing  to  the  high  value 
of  stumpage  the  planting  of  fast-growing  trees  is  a  commercial 
proposition.  It  will  be  an  important  forest  region  in  the  future, 
as  it  has  been  in  the  past.  The  trees  native  to  the  region 
should  be  planted  on  the  soils  where  they  grow  naturally; 
white  pine  will  grow  well  on  the  better  class  of  sandy  soils, 
Norway  pine  on  the  drier  soils  and  jack  pine  on  the  poorest 
and  driest  of  the  sandy  soils.  Scotch  pine  seems  to  thrive 
on  most  of  these  sites.  The  better  class  of  hardwoods  of  the 
region  should  be  used  on  the  hardwood  soils  for  restocking 
and  improving  the  present  stands  in  the  farm  woodlots.  Black 
locust,  honey  locust  and  coffeetree  can  also  be  planted  for 
fence  posts.  Catalpa  has  been  used  to  some  extent,  but  the 
region  is  too  far  north  for  this  species,  the  severe  winters 
killing  back  the  new  wood. 

Tho  Central  Hardwood  Region. — This  region  extends  from 
central  New  York  State  and  western  Pennsylvania  south  to 
northern  Alabama  and  west  to  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Nebraska 
and  Missouri.  It  has  in  general  a  level  topography,  but  v/ith 
many  steep  slopes  and  deep  ravines.  It  is  typically  a  hardwood 
forest  region,  the  forest  being  made  up  of  a  great  number 
of  broadleaf  trees  mixed  in  together.  Red  cedar  is  the  only 


66  FARM  FORESTRY 

coniferous  tree  that  occurs  extensively.  The  soil  and  climate 
are  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  trees.  Owing  to  the  many 
wood-using  industries  in  the  region  and  the  demand  for  wood 
products  of  all  kinds,  timber  is  of  value.  Many  individual 
trees  of  good  form  and  quality  bring  high  prices  for  special 
purposes.  Much  planting  has  been  done  for  posts  and  lumber. 
The  woodlots  of  the  region  are  for  the  most  part  in  a  culled 
condition,  most  of  the  valuable  trees  having  been  removed. 
Wornout  woodlots  should  be  restocked  and  plantings  started 
on  all  the  poorer  soils  of  the  farm.  The  upland  forests  con- 
tain oaks,  hickory,  sugar  maple,  white  ash,  yellow  poplar,  bass- 
wood,  walnut,  cherry  and  birch.  The  lowland  forest  contains 
elm,  red  maple,  black  ash,  sycamore,  willow  and  gums.  Many 
of  these  native  species  are  of  value  for  planting.  Black  locust 
and  catalpa  have  been  used  extensively  for  posts.  White  pine, 
Norway  pine,  yellow  poplar,  red  oak,  black  walnut  and  white 
ash  all  should  be  of  value  in  planting  for  lumber.  White  ash 
and  green  ash  will  grow  well  and  furnish  lumber  and  wood  for 
general  farm  purposes  and  for  handles. 

The  Prairie  Region. — This  region  consists  of  three  prin- 
cipal divisions :  the  Western  Prairie  Region,  including  eastern 
Montana,  the  Dakotas,  south  and  western  Minnesota  and 
northern  Iowa ;  the  Middle  West,  including  southeastern  South 
Dakota,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  eastern  Colorado  and  west- 
ern Illinois ;  and  the  Southern  Plains,  including  Oklahoma, 
southwest  Kansas,  northwest  Texas  and  eastern  New  Mexico. 
This  is  not  a  region  of  natural  tree  growth  except  along  the 
watercourses,  owing  to  the  lack  of  rainfall.  Where  trees  are 
started  in  forest  plantings,  however,  and  cultivated  until  the 
crowns  shade  the  soil,  so  that  forest  conditions  are  established, 
there  should  be  no  trouble  in  raising  valuable  stands  of  trees. 
There  are  in  general  two  planting  sites  in  this  region,  namely, 
the  uplands,  consisting  of  exposed  rolling  prairies  and  plains, 
and  lowlands  or  bottomlands  and  lower  valley  slopes. 

The  Northern  Prairie  Region. — On  the  uplands,  plantings 


TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS  67 

should  be  in  the  nature  of  wind  breaks  or  shelter  belts  located 
along  the  northern  and  western  boundaries  of  every  160  acre 
farm  and  two  extending  from  north  to  south  at  intervals  of 
60  rods  from  the  west  side.  The  species  recommended  for  the 
better  class  of  soils  are  European  larch,  cottonwood,  white 
willow,  Scotch  pine  and  western  yellow  pine.  On  the  poorer 
soils  or  in  very  exposed  situations,  western  yellow  pine,  Scotch 
pine,  white  spruce,  green  ash,  white  elm,  hackberry  and  box- 
elder  should  thrive.  Thorough  cultivation  is  necessary  until  the 
crowns  shade  the  soil.  The  trees  should  be  closely  spaced  so 
as  to  bring  this  condition  about  as  soon  as  possible.  A  spacing 
of  4  by  4  feet  for  conifers  and  5  by  5  feet  for  the  slowly 
growing  hardwoods  and  15  by  15  feet  for  cottonwood  under- 
planted  with  silver  maple  is  advised. 

On  the  lowlands  better  soil  and  moisture  conditions  are 
found.  All  the  species  recommended  for  the  uplands  will  do 
well,  especially  cottonwood,  European  larch,  Scotch  pine, 
silver  maple,  white-  willow,  Austrian  pine  and  white  pine. 
On  the  lowlands  the  growing  of  trees  for  fence  posts  and  fuel 
is  a  commercial  proposition  at  present. 

The  Middle  West. — Plantings  will  be  made  primarily  for 
shelter  belts  and  for  the  production  of  fence  posts.  On  the 
better  upland  soils  hardy  catalpa,  European  larch,  cottonwood, 
osage  orange,  white  pine  and  white  willow  are  recommended. 
For  the  sandy  lands  in  the  western  part  of  the  region  jack 
pine,  Scotch  pine,  Austrian  pine  and  western  yellow  pine  and 
red  cedar  are  the  species  advised,  and  on  the  better  soils 
honey  locust,  Russian  mulberry,  osage  orange,  red  cedar, 
western  yellow  pine,  Austrian  pine,  Scotch  pine,  green  ash 
and  white  elm.  On  the  lowlands  in  the  region,  hardy  catalpa 
and  osage  orange  are  the  chief  trees  for  fence  posts  and  cot- 
tonwood on  short  rotations  for  lumber,  pulpwood,  boxboards 
and  staves,  and  for  fuel  alone  white  willow  and  silver  maple, 
walnut  and  Kentucky  coffeetree  are  also  recommended.  The 
spacing  used  in  plantings  should  not  exceed  6  by  6  feet,  and 


68  FARM  FORESTRY 

on  the  poorer  sites  a  closer  spacing  should  be  used.  Cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil  is  necessary  during  the  first  few  years. 

The  Southern  Plains. — On  the  uplands  the  southern  and 
western  sides  of  each  quarter  section  should  be  protected  by 
shelterbelts  from  the  dry  southwestern  winds  with  belts  run- 
ning east  and  west  every  30  to  40  rods.  In  the  more  humid 
eastern  region  cottonwood,  green  ash,  Russian  mulberry, 
osage  orange  and  white  elm  will  thrive,  and  black  locust  where 
it  is  not  subject  to  the  locust  borer.  In  the  very  dry  western 
portion  of  the  region  there  are  no  trees  that  are  sure  of  success. 
The  following  are  recommended  as  being  likely  to  succeed : 
Green  ash,  white  elm,  osage  orange,  red  cedar,  black  locust, 
honey  locust  and  Russian  mulberry  for  fence  posts  and  west- 
ern yellow  pine  and  cottonwood  for  lumber. 

On  the  lowlands  better  conditions  of  soil  moisture  are 
found.  The  most  valuable  species  for  planting  are  osage 
orange,  black  locust,  Russian  mulberry  and  cottonwood  for  fuel 
and  lumber.  As  in  the  other  parts  of  this  region,  thorough 
cultivation  of  the  soil  is  essential  for  success  in  starting 
plantings.  Mixtures  of  a  few  of  the  species  will  often  do 
better  than  where  a  single  species  is  planted.  This  is  because 
of  the  denser  shade  that  is  formed.  Under  planting  the  plan- 
tations with  the  more  tolerant  species  will  prove  of  value. 

Planting  for  Windbreaks. — Windbreaks  are  grown  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  homes,  cattle,  orchards  and  fields  from 
the  wind.  In  many  regions  this  is  essential.  There  is  scarcely 
a  portion  of  the  country  that  is  not  subject  to  severe  winds. 
Windbreaks  planted  about  fields  diminish  soil  erosion,  me- 
chanical injury  to  the  soil  and  crops  and  evaporation  from  the 
soil  and  plants. 

Trees  form  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  protection 
against  winds.  Where  the  protecting  trees  are  in  one  or  two 
rows  the  term  windbreak  is  applied.  A  shelter  belt  consists 
of  three  or  more  rows  but  not  wider  than  twice  the  ultimate 


TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS  69 

height  of  the  trees.     Groves  and  sometimes  forests  are  also 
grown  for  protection  from  the  wind. 

The  influence  of  a  windbreak  is  proportional  to  its  height 
and  density.  The  influence  is  appreciable  for  a  distance  equal 
to  five  times  the  height  of  the  trees  in  the  windward  direction 
and  fifteen  or  twenty  times  the  height  to  leeward.  The  dis- 
tance increases  with  the  velocity  of  the  wind. 

Windbreaks  have  a  somewhat  damaging  effect  on  crops, 
due  to  the  shade  cast  by  the  crowns  of  the  trees,  and  also  to 
the  sapping  of  the  soil  moisture  by  the  roots.  Species  having 
narrow  crowns  or  light  foliage  and  which  do  not  extend  their 
roots  far  should  be  selected  where  the  injury  is  likely  to  be 
considerable. 

Sapping  the  soil  moisture  by  the  roots  of  trees  can  be  over- 
come in  large  measure  by  very  deep  plowing  each  year  to  cut 
off  surface  roots  of  the  trees.  Cultivating  the  soil  near  the 
trees  will  tend  to  induce  them  to  secure  their  food  closer  to 
the  trunks.  Tap-rooted  species  like  white  pine,  Norway  pine, 
oaks,  hickories  and  maples  can  be  used.  Green  ash,  osage 
orange  and  mulberry  do  not  extend  their  roots  far.  Often 
the  value  of  the  timber  and  other  products,  as  well  as  the 
protection  secured,  will  more  than  repay  any  loss  from,  the 
crops. 

The  trees  in  windbreaks  should  be  planted  closely  together 
so  that  the  branches  will  interlace  and  make  an  effective 
shelter.  The  narrower  the  belt  the  closer  the  trees  should  be 
planted.  Trees  with  slender  crowns  can  be  planted  closer  than 
those  with  wide-spreading  crowns;  slow-growing  trees  closer 
than  fast-growing  species.  In  genera]  the  trees  should  not  be 
planted  farther  than  5  or  6  feet  apart.  The  rows  are  often 
spaced  5  to  6  feet  apart  and  the  trees  in  the  rows  spaced  much 
closer  together. 

In  starting  a  windbreak  the  protection  is  desired  as  soon 
as  possible.  To  secure  this  a  fast-growing  tree  should  be 
selected,  even  though  it  may  not  be  a  particularly  desirable 


70  FARM  FORESTRY 

tree  for  the  purpose.  Cottonwood  will  grow  25  feet  in  five 
or  six  years  on  good  soil.  Silver  maple  and  box  elder  are  also 
fast-growing  trees.  A  windbreak  can  be  planted  using  such 
fast-growing  trees  and  at  the  same  time  a  more  valuable  tree 
for  the  purpose  can  be  planted  which  will  take  the  place  of 
the  other  trees  in  time.  A  single  row  of  trees  planted  along 
the  edges  of  fields  will  give  good  protection  in  many  regions. 
The  trees  should  be  underplanted  so  that  when  they  begin  to 
shed  their  lower  branches  the  smaller  trees  will  fill  in  between 
them.  The  large  trees  can  be  pruned  of  their  limbs  as  the 
lower  trees  increase  in  height.  In  this  way  the  trees  will  fur- 
nish valuable  wood  product  as  well  as  protection  from  the 
wind. 

In  the  Middle  West  cottonwood  is  the  tree  best  suited  for 
windbreaks  when  planted  on  good,  moist  situations.  It  should 
be  planted  in  belts  125  to  150  feet  wide  running  east  and  west 
and  should  not  be  cut  until  about  45  years  of  age,  at  which 
time  the  trees  should  be  nearly  90  feet  high.  The  belts  should 
be  underplanted  a  few  years  after  the  cottonwood  is  started 
with  some  more  tolerant  tree,  such  as  green  ash,  red  oak  or 
the  spruces.  On  the  uplands  and  on  the  poorer  situations 
osage  orange,  green  ash,  honey  locust,  Scotch  pine  and  Aus- 
trian pine  can  be  used. 

On  the  northern  prairies  protection  is  necessary  from  the 
cold  north  winds  of  winter  and  the  hot,  dry,  chinook  winds 
that  blow  from  the  mountains  in  early  spring.  Windbreaks 
should  be  planted  across  the  northern  and  western  boundaries 
of  each  quarter  section  and  one  or  two  rows  planted  within, 
the  trees  being  planted  in  belts  from  60  to  75  feet  wide.  On 
good  situations  Scotch  pine,  Norway  pine,  Colorado  blue 
spruce  and  the  Black  Hills  spruce  are  recommended,  and  on 
the  poorer  situations  western  yellow  pine,  Scotch  pine  and 
Black  Hills  spruce. 

In  the  Lake  States  white  pine  is  advised  for  windbreaks, 
planted  in  belts  running  north  and  south,  spaced  4  by  6  feet 


Photo  by  R.  S.  Maddox. 
Black  locust  in  gulley  preventing  erosion. 


TREES  TO  USE  IN  STARTING  WOODLOTS  71 

apart.  Norway  spruce  has  also  been  used  extensively,  and 
white  cedar  is  a  valuable  species  for  this  purpose  planted  2 
by  4  feet.  On  very  sandy  soils  Scotch  pine  and  Norway  pine 
should  be  used.  Windbreaks  are  especially  needed  for  orchard 
protection. 

In  the  Eastern  States  white  pine,  white  spruce,  Norway 
spruce,  white  cedar  and  hemlock  are  recommended.  Two  rows 
of  Norway  spruce  make  a  good  windbreak  when  planted  about 
8  by  8  feet  apart  and  the  trees  alternated  in  the  rows. 

Planting  to  Prevent  Erosion. — In  many  regions  erosion  is 
one  of  the  serious  effects  of  denuding  hillsides  of  tree  growth. 
It  not  only  destroys  the  value  of  the  soil  by  stripping  off  the 
top  layers  and  by  gulleying,  but  the  material  washed  away  is 
deposited  in  the  streams,  impeding  navigation,  and  in  times  of 
very  high  water  and  floods  it  may  cover  fertile  lands  with 
gravel  and  stones,  making  them  worthless.  In  many  regions 
forests  should  be  maintained  for  soil  protection.  Tree  plant- 
ing on  abandoned  land  on  the  farm  is  often  a  necessary  opera- 
tion to  prevent  erosion. 

Gulleys  formed  in  the  soil  from  erosion  can  often  be 
stopped  by  planting  trees  and  shrubs.  To  do  this  it  is  neces- 
sary to  hold  the  soil  in  place  by  some  means  until  the  trees  get 
a  firm  hold  on  the  ground.  Brush,  logs,  stumps  and  stones 
can  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  head  of  the  gulley  is  the 
important  point.  If  the  headward  gnawing  can  be  stopped 
the  gulley  can  usually  be  controlled  by  planting.  Brush  should 
be  piled  with  the  tops  up  stream  and  held  in  place  by  stakes. 
Back  of  the  dam  formed  trees  and  shrubs  should  be  planted. 
These  should  be  of  large  size,  so  that  they  will  not  easily  be 
washed  out  of  the  ground.  Black  locust  is  one  of  the  best 
trees  to  plant,  as  it  fills  the  soil  with  a  network  of  roots  and 
will  send  up  new  trees  from  the  roots.  Willow  is  often  used, 
and  any  fast-growing  tree  like  cottonwood  should  prove  valu- 
able. Shrubs  planted  along  the  edges  of  the  gulley  will  pre- 
vent its  growing  larger. 


72  FARM  FORESTRY 

Raising  Christmas  Trees. — The  raising  of  Christmas  trees 
is  a  profitable  undertaking  in  many  regions.  Trees  from  6 
to  8  feet  high  are  in  greatest  demand,  and  there  is  a  good 
market  for  smaller  trees.  Especially  well- formed  specimens 
are  often  sought  by  nurserymen  for  ornamental  purposes.  In 
from  5  to  6  years  after  planting  the  trees  an  income  should 
be  secured.  There  are  many  conifers  that  can  be  used  for  the 
purpose.  Spruce  and  fir  are  usually  in  greatest  demand, 
though  many  of  the  pines  like  white  pine  and  Norway  pine 
are  sold.  On  fairly  good  soil  these  trees  should  grow  from  a 
half  foot  to  a  foot  each  year.  Because  the  trees  are  to  be 
removed  early  in  their  life  a  close  spacing  can  be  used.  Three 
by  three  feet  is  often  used  for  spruce  and  fir  requiring  4840 
trees  to  the  acre.  Faster-growing  trees  should  be  spaced  4 
by  4  feet,  requiring  2723  trees  to  the  acre.  Small  trees  for 
planting  can  be  purchased  from  nurserymen  often  for  as  low 
a  price  as  $2  to  $3  a  thousand. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING 

White  Pine  (Pinus  strobus). — The  white  pine  is  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  northeastern  part  of  the  country, 
extending  south  to  Pennsylvania  and  Iowa  and  along  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  to  Georgia.  It  grows  to  large  size, 
often  living  450  years  and  reaching  175  feet  in  height  and 
3  to  5  feet  in  diameter.  It  grows  best  on  deep,  light,  moist 
and  sandy  soils.  It  will,  however,  grow  on  nearly  all  situations 
where  there  is  sufficient  moisture,  from  steep  rocky  slopes  to 
river  bottoms  that  are  well  drained.  The  wood  of  white  pine 
is  soft,  light,  straight  grained  and  easily  worked  and  will  not 
warp.  It  has  been  an  important  construction  timber.  More 
lumber  has  been  cut  from  white  pine  than  from  any  other 
species,  and  it  was  formerly  used  for  more  purposes  than 
any  other  wood.  It  is  gradually  becoming  scarce  and  the 
better  grades  are  high  in  price. 

The  seedlings  of  white  pine  for  planting,  as  with  other 
conifers,  are  difficult  to  grow  without  constant  care  and  atten- 
tion during  the  first  few  weeks.  It  is  best  to  purchase  2-year- 
old  seedlings  from  a  commercial  nursery.  They  can  often  be 
purchased  for  as  low  as  $2  or  $3  a  thousand.  They  will 
be  large  enough  to  plant  on  favorable  sites  and  for  under- 
planting  open  stands  of  timber.  Where  the  conditions  are  not 
favorable,  as  where  the  grass  or  weeds  grow  high,  the  seed- 
lings should  be  grown  in  the  farm  nursery  for  a  year  or  more 
before  planting.  In  starting  plantings  the  seedlings  are  planted 
in  rows  6  to  8  feet  apart  and  spaced  the  same  distance  apart 

73 


74  FARM  FORESTRY 

in  the  rows,  the  distance  depending  on  the  conditions  of  the 
soil  and  the  situation.  On  the  poorer  sites  the  trees  should  be 
planted  closely  together. 

White  pine  grows  in  height  at  an  average  rate  of  about 
a  foot  a  year.  Often  a  growth  of  several  feet  is  made  a  year 
on  good  soil.  At  25  years  of  age  under  good  conditions  white 
pine  will  vary  in  height  from  25  to  30  feet,  and  in  diameter 
from  5  to  6  inches.  The  trees  are  badly  damaged  by  the  white 
pine  weevil,  an  insect  that  bores  into  the  tip  or  leader  and 
kills  it.  This  may  cause  a  bushy  or  forked  tree.  The  trees 
are  also  subject  to  several  diseases,  especially  to  the  blister 
rust.  For  these  reasons  it  must  be  planted  with  caution. 
Although  one  of  the  fast-growing  conifers  and  producing  a 
wood  more  valuable  for  many  uses  than  any  other  tree,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  discontinue  its  use  for  forest  planting  because 
of  these  enemies.  It  is  common  to  mix  the  white  pine  with 
some  other  tree,  so  that  if  the  white  pine  fails  the  other  tree 
will  form  the  future  stand,  a  row  of  white  pine  alternating 
with  the  other  species.  Norway  pine  is  a  good  tree  for  this 
purpose,  as  it  grows  nearly  as  fast  as  the  white  pine.  European 
spruce,  European  larch,  red  oak,  white  ash  and  hard  maple 
are  other  trees  that  can  be  used. 

Norway  or  Red  Pine  (Pinus  resinosa). — The  natural  range 
of  the  Norway  or  red  pine  is  along  the  northern  border  of 
the  country  west  to  Minnesota  and  south  to  Pennsylvania. 
It  grows  to  be  a  tree  70  to  90  feet  high  and  2  to  3  feet  in 
diameter.  It  grows  best  on  a  sandy  loam  soil,  well  drained, 
and  of  fair  fertility,  but  it  also  thrives  on  poor,  dry,  sandy 
soils.  It  is  a  hardy  tree  and  not  so  susceptible  to  insect  and 
fungous  attacks  as  is  the  white  pine.  It  is  propagated  the 
same  as  for  white  pine.  It  is  often  planted  mixed  with  the 
white  pine.  It  grows  well  in  pure  stands.  The  wood  is  much 
like  white  pine,  though  a  little  heavier  and  harder.  At  30 
years  of  age  trees  will  reach  30  to  35  feet  in  height  and  from 
5  to  6  inches  in  diameter.  Being  a  native  tree  and  not  injured 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          75 

seriously  by  insects  or  disease,  Norway  pine  should  hold  an 
important  place  in  forestry  in  the  future.  It  is  propagated 
as  for  white  pine. 

Jack  Pine  (Finns  divaricata}. — Jack  pine  is  a  northern 
tree  extending  south  to  northern  New  England,  New  York, 
and  the  Lake  States.  It  is  most  abundant  on  the  sand  plains 
of  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota.  It  is  a  comparatively 
small  tree.  Mature  stands  will  not  average  more  than  70  feet 
high  and  10  inches  in  diameter.  Individual  trees  are  found 
100  feet  high  and  18  inches  in  diameter.  Its  importance  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  will  grow  well  on  poor,  dry  sands.  It  forms 
a  tap  root  that  grows  deep  into  the  ground,  making  it  possible 
for  the  tree  to  stand  very  dry  conditions.  It  is  a  very  intol- 
erant tree.  It  makes  very  rapid  growth  in  youth.  At  10  years 
of  age  trees  on  poor  soil  are  often  18  feet  high.  It  will  some- 
times grow  3  feet  a  year  at  that  age.  Its  growth  slows  down 
later,  so  that  at  60  years  of  age  the  trees  are  only  60  feet 
high  and  from  5  to  8  inches  in  diameter.  It  has  short  life, 
the  average  age  of  stands  seldom  exceeding  80  to  90  years. 
It  bears  large  quantities  of  seed  every  year.  Cones  are  often 
produced  on  trees  at  5  years  of  age.  The  seeds  are  light 
and  are  blown  long  distances  by  the  wind.  It  quickly  seeds 
up  burned  over  areas.  The  cones,  which  naturally  open  with 
difficulty,  are  dried  out  by  fire  and  open  readily  after  it  has 
passed  to  scatter  the  seed.  It  can  easily  be  propagated  arti- 
ficially by  sowing  the  seed.  The  wood  is  soft,  light  and  brittle, 
but  has  many  uses,  including  bed  slats,  boxes,  ceiling,  crates, 
flooring,  furniture  and  siding.  It  will  be  an  important  tree 
locally  in  its  natural  range  on  soil  too  dry  and  sandy  for  other 
species  of  trees  to  grow. 

Scotch  Pine  (Pinus  syk'estris). — Scotch  pine  is  a  native  of 
Europe  and  has  been  planted  extensively  in  this  country  chiefly 
for  ornamental  purposes.  Many  plantations  of  this  tree  have 
been  started.  It  grows  to  be  a  tree  70  feet  high  and  i]^ 
to  3  feet  in  diameter,  and  may  reach  120  feet  in  height  ana 


76  FARM  FORESTRY 

3  to  5  feet  in  diameter.  It  makes  rapid  height  growth  for  the 
first  15  or  20  years,  often  20  to  30  inches  a  year.  It  will  grow 
on  all  classes  of  soils,  even  dry  sand,  although  it  prefers  deep, 
well  drained,  sandy  loam.  It  is  very  intolerant  of  shade. 
The  wood  is  comparatively  soft,  light,  resinous,  and  light 
reddish-brown  in  color.  It  is  used  for  general  construction, 
lumber,  railroad  ties  and  poles.  Two-year-old  seedlings  can 
be  purchased  from  nurserymen  and  planted  in  the  farm 
nursery  for  a  year  or  two  before  being  planted,  except  on  very 
favorable  sites  where  the  grass  and  weeds  do  not  grow  high, 
when  the  two-year-old  seedlings  can  be  used.  It  should  be 
spaced  about  6  by  8  feet,  being  rather  intolerant.  It  is  often 
mixed  with  white  pine  in  alternate  rows.  It  is  a  very  hardy 
tree  and  free  from  diseases.  It  grows  well  on  the  sandy 
soils  of  the  Lake  States,  in  the  Prairie  region,  and  on  aban- 
doned lands  in  New  England.  Trees  planted  in  this  country 
have  usually  come  from  a  mountain  variety  and  do  not  grow 
to  large  size.  At  about  20  years  of  age  they  become  crooked 
and  yield  but  little  timber.  Unless  a  better  variety  of  seed 
can  be  secured  some  of  our  native  species  will  prove  better 
in  the  long  run. 

White  Spruce  (Picea  canadensis). — White  spruce  occurs 
naturally  throughout  the  northern  tier  of  states  to  Montana 
and  crosses  the  continent  and  reaches  the  Pacific  coast  in 
Alaska.  It  is  a  tree  of  the  cold  North.  It  is  a  tree  of  medium 
size,  a  large  tree  of  the  species  being  TOO  feet  high  and  30 
inches  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  soft,  light,  and  not  very 
strong.  Like  other  spruces  it  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
paper  pulp  and  for  lumber  and  construction  purposes.  It 
will  grow  under  a  wide  range  of  soil  and  moisture  conditions. 
It  is  found  on  low  land  along  streams  and  on  the  sides  of 
ridges  and  hills.  It  grows  best  in  moist,  well  drained,  sandy 
loam  soil.  It  is  a  very  tolerant  tree,  the  side  branches  remain- 
ing on  the  trees  many  years  producing  knotty  lumber,  unless 
grown  in  dense  stands.  Being  a  native  tree  and  adapted  to 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          77 

many  soils  and  situations,  it  is  believed  that  the  white  spruce 
will  be  an  important  tree  in  the  future  for  planting  for  pulp 
wood  and  lumber.  In  many  places  it  is  being  planted  for  this 
purpose.  It  is  often  used  for  windbreaks.  It  is  readily  grown 
from  seed  in  nurseries  and  easily  handled.  After  the  first 
few  years  its  growth  is  fairly  rapid.  It  should  be  planted  in 
crowded  stands,  spaced  about  4  feet  by  4  feet  apart.  As  with 
the  other  conifers  small  seedlings  can  be  purchased  from 
nurserymen  and  grown  for  a  year  or  until  large  enough  to 
set  out.  On  the  more  favorable  sites  3-year-old  transplants 
will  be  large  enough. 

Norway  Spruce  (Picea  excelsa). — This  tree  is  a  native  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  but  is  hardy  and  grows  well  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States.  It  has  been  planted  extensively 
for  ornamental  purposes  and  is  often  seen  growing  around 
farm  homes  and  in  cemeteries  and  for  windbreaks.  In  Europe 
it  grows  to  be  a  very  large  tree,  often  exceeding  125  feet  in 
height  and  3  feet  in  diameter.  It  grows  well  on  nearly  all 
situations,  except  a  naturally  dry  soil.  It  will  grow  well  in  a 
fresh  shallow  soil,  whether  fertile  or  not,  and  will  thrive  with 
moderate  amount  of  moisture.  Because  of  its  dense  crown 
it  has  been  planted  extensively  for  windbreaks  in  the  Middle 
West.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  splits  easily  and  does  not  warp. 
It  makes  a  good  construction  material,  and  is  used  for  paper 
pulp,  masts,  oars,  and  many  other  purposes.  Two-year-old 
seedlings  can  be  purchased  from  nurserymen  and  planted  for 
a  year  or  two  in  the  farm  nursery  before  planting.  For  lumber 
the  trees  should  be  spaced  about  4  or  5  feet  apart.  For  wind- 
breaks a  wider  spacing  is  better,  often  up  to  12  feet  by  12 
feet.  It  is  a  good  tree  for  underplanting  old  groves  of  cotton- 
wood,  walnut  or  other  trees  where  the  canopy  is  thin,  being 
a  tolerant  tree.  Spruce  trees  grow  slowly  for  the  first  few 
years,  but  after  that  period  is  passed  growth  is  fairly  rapid. 
Trees  30  years  of  age  have  often  reached  50  to  60  feet  in  height 
and  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter.  Because  of  its  being  a  foreign 


78  FARM  FORESTRY 

tree  it  is  probable  that  the  native  white  spruce  will  in  the  end 
be  a  better  tree  to  plant.  Trees  at  about  40  or  50  years  of 
age  begin  to  grow  ragged  in  the  tops,  showing  that  the  tree 
is  not  especially  adapted  to  the  climate. 

European  Larch  (Larix  Europea). — European  larch  is  a 
native  of  the  northern  part  of  Europe,  growing  in  the  cooler 
and  higher  altitudes.  It  has  been  planted  extensively  in  this 
country  for  ornamental  purposes,  and  also  for  posts  and  poles. 
It  is  a  fast  grower,  but  seldom  reaches  more  than  a  height 
of  80  feet  and  a  diameter  of  2  to  3  feet.  At  40  years  of  age 
trees  often  reach  50  to  60  feet  in  height  and  6  to  7  inches  in 
diameter.  It  is  an  intolerant  tree,  and  so  does  not  cast  a 
heavy  shade  on  the  ground  or  maintain  good  forest  condi- 
tions. It  should  be  mixed  with  some  other  tree  that  will  fur- 
nish the  necessary  shade,  as  white  pine,  white  spruce  or  red 
oak.  The  larch  should  be  spaced  about  10  feet  by  10  feet 
and  rilled  in  with  the  other  species.  It  requires  a  fresh,  well 
drained,  moderately  heavy  soil.  It  does  not  do  well  on  sand 
or  gravel  or  on  wet  situations.  The  wood  is  heavy,  fairly" 
hard,  and  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground.  It  would  be 
a  good  tree  to  plant  for  fence  posts  were  it  not  for  the  danger 
of  the  larch  sawfly,  which  attacks  and  kills  the  trees  by  de- 
foliating them.  Seedlings  for  planting  can  be  purchased  from 
nurserymen. 

Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  virginiana) . — The  red  cedar  is  the 
most  widely  distributed  coniferous  tree  in  the  United  States, 
being  distributed  throughout  the  forests  east  of  the  Dakotas 
and  Texas.  In  the  region  of  its  best  development  it  forms 
pure  forests,  but  it  usually  grows  in  association  with  a  large 
number  of  hardwood  trees.  It  grows  under  almost  any  con- 
dition of  soil  and  moisture,  from  dry  rocky  ridges  to  fertile 
bottomlands.  It  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  the  semi-arid 
plains,  where  but  few  other  trees  will  succeed.  In  the  South 
it  sometimes  grows  100  feet  high  and  3  feet  in  diameter,  but 
usually  it  does  not  exceed  30  feet  in  height.  The  growth  is 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          79 

naturally  slow,  but  the  rate  varies  with  the  conditions  of  the 
soil.  It  takes  from  i  to  15  years  to  grow  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  height  growth  does  not  exceed  a  foot  a  year.  The  wood 
is  light,  soft  and  of  compact  grain.  It  will  take  a  high  polish. 
The  wood  is  very  durable,  which  makes  it  a  valuable  tree  for 
fence  posts,  poles,  chests  and  railroad  ties.  The  wood  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  lead  pencils.  Its  dense  crown  makes 
it  a  good  tree  to  plant  for  windbreaks  on  the  Plains.  It  is 
reproduced  only  by  seed.  Usually  it  takes  two  years  for 
germination.  The  seed  should  be  collected  when  ripe,  soaked 
in  warm  water  for  several  hours  and  stratified  in  moist  sand 
and  planted  in  the  fall,  a  year  from  the  time  they  were  gath- 
ered, or  kept  until  the  following  spring.  They  are  difficult 
to  grow,  owing  to  the  damping  off  fungus.  It  will  be  better 
to  purchase  small  seedlings  from  nurserymen  and  set  them 
out  for  a  year  or  two  before  planting.  It  should  be  planted 
with  light  demanding  trees  like  cottonwood  and  green  ash. 
It  will  grow  more  slowly  than  these  trees  and  form  an  under- 
story  shading  the  ground  from  the  sun.  When  planted  in 
pure  plantations  on  dry  uplands  it  should  be  spaced  4  by  4 
feet  apart.  On  better  or  more  moist  soils  4  by  6  or  8  feet  is 
best.  It  is  often  injured  by  fungus  diseases  and  by  insects. 

American  or  White  Elm  (Ulmus  Americana). — The 
American  elm  is  distributed  widely  throughout  the  eastern 
part  of  the  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  seldom 
forms  a  large  percentage  of  the  trees  in  the  forest.  Mature 
trees  vary  from  60  to  120  feet  in  height  and  from  2  to  8 
feet  in  diameter.  It  grows  best  on  deep  alluvial  soil  with  a 
constant  supply  of  moisture.  It  will,  however,  grow  on  fairly 
dry  soil.  It  is  considered  one  of  the  hardiest  trees  for  Prairie 
planting,  as  it  is  able  to  endure  the  greatest  extremes  of 
temperature  and  drought  of  the  treeless  west.  It  is  grown 
throughout  its  range  as  an  ornamental  and  shade  tree.  The 
wood  is  moderately  strong,  coarse  grained,  difficult  to  split, 
not  durable  and  liable  to  warp  and  check  in  drying.  In  young 


80  FARM  FORESTRY 

trees  the  wood  is  very  tough.  It  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements  and  carriages  and  for 
cooperage  and  saddletrees.  It  is  propagated  by  seeds.  These 
ripen  in  May  and  should  be  collected  from  the  ground  and  at 
once  planted  in  the  nursery  in  drills  8  to  10  inches  apart.  The 
seed  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  out.  The  young  seedlings 
can  be  transplanted  when  a  year  old.  It  can  be  grown  in  pure 
stands  or  in  mixture  with  hardy  catalpa,  ashes,  locusts,  coffee- 
tree,  black  walnut,  black  cherry,  red  cedar  and  European  larch. 
It  should  be  planted  4  to  6  feet  apart.  The  tree  is  seriously 
affected  by  insects,  especially  the  elm  leaf  beetle  and  other 
leaf  destroyers  and  by  borers  that  girdle  the  inner  bark,  killing 
the  trees.  In  many  regions  it  can  be  grown  only  by  con- 
stantly combatting  such  insect  pests. 

Coffeetree  (Gymnocladus  dioicus). — The  coffeetree  is 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  country. 
It  is  nowhere  abundant,  occurring  only  as  solitary  individuals 
among  other  hardwoods.  Forest-grown  trees  make  a  height 
of  60  to  100  feet  and  a  diameter  of  ij^  to  2  feet.  Under  very 
favorable  conditions  the  height  growth  for  the  first  30  to  40 
years  often  amounts  to  I  to  2  feet  a  year,  while  the  annual 
diameter  growth  is  about  y\  to  y2  inch  a  year.  On  poor 
soil  it  is  a  slow-growing  but  long-living  tree  of  small  size. 
The  wood  is  heavy,  moderately  hard,  very  stiff,  and  of  coarse 
texture,  and  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  It  shrinks  and 
checks  considerably  in  drying,  but  works  and  stands  well  and 
takes  a  high  polish.  It  is  used  for  cabinet  work,  rough  lumber 
and  fence  posts.  It  grows  best  on  the  richest  bottomlands  and 
in  moist  ravines.  It  will  grow,  however,  on  the  dry  sandy 
and  gravelly  soils  of  uplands.  It  is  a  hardy  tree  and  will  stand 
the  cold  winters  of  Minnesota  and  the  hot  summers  of  Okla- 
homa without  injury.  The  comparatively  large  seed  is  pro- 
duced in  a  pod  which  hangs  on  the  tree  often  until  far  into 
the  winter.  They  should  be  collected  and  the  seeds  removed 
and  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  Before  planting  in  the  spring 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          81 

they  should  be  placed  in  a  pail  of  hot  water  and  stirred  for 
15  minutes  or  more  and  then  covered  and  allowed  to  stand 
2  or  3  days.  The  seed  that  swells  should  be  planted  at  once 
and  not  allowed  to  dry  out  and  the  rest  treated  with  hot 
water.  The  seed  should  be  planted  in  the  nursery  about  2  or  3 
inches  apart  in  rows  2  feet  apart.  They  will  be  large  enough 
when  i  year  old  to  transplant.  It  should  be  planted  in  mixture 
with  white  elm,  hackberry,  oaks  and  ashes.  If  planted  several 
years  previous  to  its  associates  it  can  be  mixed  with  catalpa, 
Russian  mulberry  or  black  locust.  It  is  not  known  to  be  sub- 
ject to  any  serious  insect  or  fungus  diseases.  It  should  prove 
a  valuable  tree  to  plant  for  fence  posts. 

Cottonwood  (Populus  dcltoides). — The  cottonwood  grows 
naturally  throughout  the  Eastern  portion  of  the  country.  It 
grows  best  on  alluvial  soils  along  watercourses.  It  demands 
moisture,  but  does  not  demand  a  rich  soil.  It  grows  to  be  a 
tree  100  feet  in  height  and  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter.  The  wood 
is  soft  and  light  and  difficult  to  split  when  dry.  It  is  not  strong 
and  decays  rapidly  in  the  ground.  It  can  be  used  for  construc- 
tion purposes,  where  properly  piled  after  sawing  to  prevent 
warping.  It  is  also  used  for  packing  boxes,  wood  pulp  and 
crates.  It  will  grow  fence  posts  in  ten  years,  trees  at  that  age 
often  reaching  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter  breast  height  and 
30  to  35  feet  in  height.  The  wood  is  not  durable,  but  when 
treated  with  creosote,  posts  will  last  at  least  twenty  years. 
Cottonwood  has  the  fastest  growth  of  the  trees  that  are 
commonly  planted.  Where  the  soil  is  suited  to  it  trees  20 
years  of  age  will  reach  a  height  of  50  to  60  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  12  to  15  inches.  A  variety  called  the  Norway  poplar  is 
being  used  extensively  for  planting  purposes.  Cottonwood, 
like  willow,  will  start  naturally  from  cuttings.  These  should 
be  made  about  8  to  12  inches  in  length  from  the  last  year's 
growth.  Seedlings  of  cottonwood  can  also  be  found  growing 
wild  along  streams.  These  can  easily  be  transplanted.  The 
trees  in  plantations  should  be  spaced  about  12  by  12  feet 


82  FARM  FORESTRY 

apart.  It  is  best  to  underplant  with  some  such  species  as 
sugar  maple.  This  will  insure  good  forest  conditions.  The 
cottonwood  will  produce  lumber  and  the  maple  cordwood. 

Basswood  (Tilia  Americana). — The  bass  wood  or  linden 
tree  is  distributed  from  Canada  to  Alabama  along  the  moun- 
tains and  west  to  Minnesota  and  Texas.  It  grows  to  be  a 
tree  70  to  80  feet  in  height  and  2  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  suited 
to  deep,  rich,  bottomland  soils,  but  will  grow  slowly  on  poor 
upland  soils.  It  is  a  hardy  tree  and  moderately  tolerant  of 
shade.  It  makes  a  fairly  rapid  growth.  It  is  often  subject 
to  attacks  of  insects  and  fungi.  The  wood  is  soft,  light  brown 
in  color,  straight  grained  and  easily  worked,  but  is  not  very 
durable.  It  is  used  for  lumber,  woodenware,  carriage  boxes, 
trunks  and  paper  pulp.  Its  flowers  yield  large  amounts  of 
fine  honey.  It  is  reproduced  by  both  seeds  and  sprouts.  The 
seed  ripens  in  September  or  early  October.  It  should  be  col- 
lected and  either  planted  at  once  or  stratified  in  moist  sand 
over  winter.  It  is  a  prolific  sprouter,  one  of  the  best.  Seed- 
lings raised  in  the  nursery  can  be  set  out  when  one  year  of 
age.  They  should  be  spaced  about  5  or  6  feet  apart.  It 
will  do  fairly  well  in  pure  stands  and  also  in  mixture  with 
white  or  Norway  pine,  white  ash,  elm,  maples  and  hickories. 

Black  Cherry  (Prunus  serotina). — This  tree  is  common 
throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States.  It  grows 
to  be  a  tree  80  feet  in  height  and  4  feet  in  diameter,  but  is 
usually  found  about  60  to  70  feet  high  and  2  feet  in  diameter. 
It  will  grow  fairly  well  on  dry  situations,  but  on  moist,  well 
drained,  fertile  soils  it  reaches  its  maximum  development.  It 
grows  well  on  well-drained  bottomlands.  Under  favorable 
conditions  it  is  a  rapidly  growing  tree.  A  growth  of  25  feet 
in  height  and  a  diameter  breast  height  of  6  inches  has  been 
obtained  in  ten  years  on  very  rich  soil,  but  usually  the  growth 
is  much  slower.  The  wood  has  a  beautiful  grain  and  color 
and  is  in  demand  for  making  furniture.  The  heartwood 
makes  a  good  wood  for  fence  posts,  it  being  very  durable. 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          83 

The  sapwood  rots  quickly.  A  small  tree,  being  all  sap,  would 
have  to  be  treated  with  creosote  to  use  for  fence  posts.  The 
cherries  should  be  gathered  in  August  or  September,  the  pulp 
removed  by  crushing  or  by  mascerating  in  water,  and  the  pits 
stratified  in  moist  sand  over  winter.  The  seed  should  be 
planted  in  shallow  drills  in  the  spring  about  2  inches  apart. 
The  following  spring  the  seedlings  can  be  set  out  in  the  field. 
The  tree  should  be  mixed  with  some  other  species,  such  as 
white  ash,  black  walnut,  sugar  maple,  etc.,  rather  than  be 
planted  pure.  At  20  years  of  age  under  favorable  conditions 
black  cherry  will  reach  a  height  of  25  to  30  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  5  to  6  inches. 

Black  Locust,  Yellow  Locust  (Robinia  pseudacacia) . — 
The  natural  range  of  the  black  locust  is  in  the  Eastern  United 
States  along  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  but  it  has  been 
planted  extensively  all  over  the  Eastern  part  of  the  country. 
It  does  best  on  deep,  well  drained,  fertile  loam,  but  will  grow 
on  almost  any  soil  except  a  wet,  heavy  one.  It  grows  exceed- 
ingly well  on  limestone  soil.  It  is  a  rapid-growing  tree.  On 
good  soil  it  will  grow  from  2  to  4  feet  in  height  a  year.  The 
wood  is  strong  and  very  durable.  It  is  well  adapted  to  fence 
posts,  ties,  insulator  pins,  etc.  Fence  posts  can  be  grown 
in  20  years.  At  that  age  trees  will  average  5  to  6  inches  in 
diameter  at  breast  height  with  a  height  of  40  to  50  feet.  The 
great  danger  in  raising  black  locust  trees  is  that  they  are 
likely  to  be  destroyed  by  the  locust  borer,  which  riddles  the 
wood  of  the  trunk  and  branches.  This  insect  attacks  trees 
of  all  sizes,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  practical  treatment  or 
remedy.  It  is  claimed  that  the  borer  lives  on  the  pollen  of 
the  goldenrod,  and  when  this  does  not  run  wild  black  locust 
can  be  grown.  Before  starting  a  plantation  of  this  species 
the  owner  should  determine  whether  or  not  the  locust  borer 
is  injurious  to  locust  trees  in  his  vicinity.  The  pods  of  locust 
can  be  collected  from  the  tree  when  dry,  and  hung  in  bags 
over  winter  in  the  barn.  Before  planting  the  seed  should  be 


84  FARM  FORESTRY 

removed  from  the  pods  and  soaked  in  hot  water.  The  seed 
should  be  planted  in  rows  in  the  farm  nursery  and  the  little 
trees  cultivated  for  a  year.  The  following  spring  they  will  be 
large  enough  to  plant  out  in  the  field.  Where  it  is  impossible 
to  grow  the  black  locust  on  account  of  the  borer,  the  honey 
or  thorny  locust  can  often  be  grown. 

Black  Walnut  (Juglana  nigra). — Black  walnut  grows  well 
in  the  Eastern  portion  of  the  country,  especially  throughout 
the  Central  Hardwood  Region.  It  grows  to  be  a  tree  no  feet 
in  height  and  4  to  6  feet  in  diameter.  Usually  trees  grow 
from  70  to  90  feet  in  height  and  2  to  2l/2  feet  in  diameter. 
It  attains  its  best  development  in  deep,  rich  bottomlands  or 
on  fertile  hillsides.  It  demands  a  moist,  fertile  soil.  Black 
walnut  is  not  a  very  rapid  grower,  but  in  good  soil  the  growth 
is  fairly  rapid.  It  will  take  60  to  80  years  to  grow  to  lumber 
size.  It  begins  to  bear  fruit  at  12  to  15  years.  Trees  20  years 
of  age  on  good  soil  have  often  reached  a  diameter  growth 
of  5  to  6  inches  and  a  height  growth  of  20  to  25  feet.  Under 
the  best  conditions  it  often  grows  an  inch  in  diameter  every 
year.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong  and  of  coarse  texture. 
It  shrinks  and  warps  moderately  in  drying.  It  has  many 
uses.  The  heartwood  is  very  durable  in  contact  with  the 
soil.  It  makes  a  fine  fence  post.  Small  trees,  however,  are 
all  sapwood  and  should  be  creosoted  when  used  as  fence- 
posts. 

For  raising  seedlings  to  plant  the  walnuts  should  be  gath- 
ered in  the  fall,  freed  from  the  outer  husk  and  stratified  in 
moist  sand  over  winter.  The  seed  should  be  planted  where  it 
is  desired  to  have  the  trees  grow,  because  of  the  deep  tap  root 
produced.  To  prevent  destruction  by  rodents  the  seed  should 
be  treated  with  red  lead  before  planting;  2  or  3  seeds  should 
be  planted  in  each  spot  in  the  field  so  as  to  insure  a  full  stand. 
The  seedlings  can  be  thinned  out  after  the  first  year.  The  trees 
in  the  plantation  should  be  spaced  6  to  8  feet  apart.  Being  an 
intolerant  tree,  older  plantations  should  be  underplanted  with 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          85 

a  more  tolerant  tree,  like  white  pine  or  Norway  spruce  or  red 
oak,  to  maintain  forest  conditions. 

Box  Elder  (Acer  negitndo). — Box  elder  is  distributed  gen- 
erally throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  occurring 
as  scattered  trees  or  groups  among  other  hardwoods.  It  occurs 
naturally  in  the  deep,  moist,  soil  of  valleys  and  on  the  borders 
of  lakes  and  swamps,  but  it  will  grow  on  deep,  sandy  soil,  and 
will  bear  exposure  and  thrive  on  rocky  slopes  and  on  the  semi- 
arid  prairies.  It  is  a  small  tree,  rarely  exceeding  30  to  40  feet 
in  height  and  I  to  2  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  usually  a  rapidly 
growing  tree,  but  its  growth  depends  largely  on  the  character 
of  the  soil.  The  wood  is  soft,  weak,  light,  close  grained,  and 
creamy  white  in  color.  Its  principal  use  is  for  firewood,  and 
it  is  occasionally  used  for  interior  finish,  woodenware,  cheap 
furniture  and  paper  pulp.  Maple  sugar  is  sometimes  made 
from  the  sap.  The  seed  is  produced  in  great  abundance. 
They  should  be  stratified  in  moist  sand  over  winter,  and 
planted  in  the  nursery  an  inch  or  more  apart  in  rows  2  to  3 
feet  apart  and  covered  with  an  inch  of  soil.  The  seedlings 
often  grow  10  to  14  inches  high  the  first  season.  In  planta- 
tions the  trees  should  be  planted  closely,  about  4  by  8  feet 
apart.  It  is  often  mixed  with  white  elm,  European  larch, 
green  ash  and  black  walnut.  It  is  often  planted  for  wind- 
breaks because  of  its  fast  growth.  Because  of  its  brittle  wood 
the  branches  are  often  badly  broken  by  ice  and  snow. 

Chestnut  (Castanea  dentata). — The  chestnut  is  distributed 
from  Maine  to  Michigan,  south  to  Delaware  and  along  the 
mountains  to  Alabama,  Mississippi  and  Arkansas.  It  reaches 
a  height  of  120  feet  and  a  diameter  of  13  feet  or  more.  Usually 
at  maturity  the  trees  are  60  to  80  feet  high  and  3  to  4  feet 
in  diameter.  It  occurs  singly  or  in  groups  or  groves,  and 
seldom  forms  pure  stands  naturally  over  wide  areas.  It  has 
a  more  rapid  growth  than  any  of  the  more  valuable  hardwood 
trees.  It  grows  in  height  from  15  to  20  inches  a  year  for 
20  to  30  years.  Sprouts  grow  much  more  rapidly,  often  4  to  6 


86  FARM  FORESTRY 

feet  the  first  year,  and  in  20  to  25  years  they  are  large  enough 
for  poles  and  ties.  After  30  years  the  rapid  growth  ceases. 
In  the  end  the  trees  from  seed  will  reach  a  much  larger  size. 
The  rate  of  growth  will  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The 
wood  is  light,  fairly  soft  and  rather  coarse  grained.  It  splits 
and  works  easily,  checks  and  shrinks  considerably  in  drying, 
and  is  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground.  It  is '  used 
in  cabinet  work,  cooperage,  interior  finish  fence  posts,  tele- 
graph and  telephone  poles  and  crossties.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  of  woods  in  its  natural  region  of  growth.  It  is 
propagated  by  seeds  and  by  sprouts  from  the  stump.  There 
is  probably  no  tree  that  sprouts  better.  It  is  easily  managed 
by  the  coppice  system.  The  nuts  should  be  gathered  in  the  fall 
and  stratified  in  moist  sand  over  winter,  and  planted  in  the 
nursery  a  foot  apart  in  rows  that  are  3  feet  apart  and  covered 
i  to  2  inches  deep.  In  one  season  the  seedlings  will  be  a 
foot  or  more  high  and  can  be  transplanted  when  one  or  two 
years  old.  It  is  better  to  start  the  trees  wrhere  the  trees  are 
to  be  grown.  The  chestnut  would  be  one  of  the  best  trees 
to  plant  for  lumber  and  fence  posts  if  it  were  not  for  the 
chestnut  bark  disease,  which  has  killed  the  trees  over  a  wide 
area  in  the  eastern  portion  of  its  range.  Until  the  extent  of 
this  disease  is  known  and  its  spread  ceases  it  cannot  be  advised. 
It  should  be  planted  with  caution. 

Green  Ash  (Fraxinus  lanceolata). — The  green  ash  is  dis- 
tributed over  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  occurring  singly  or  in  small  groups  in  the 
forest.  It  is  a  medium-sized  tree.  A  height  of  80  feet  and 
a  diameter  of  24  inches  is  rarely  exceeded.  It  grows  best  on 
low,  moist  soil,  but  will  grow  under  a  wide  variety  of  soil 
and  moisture  conditions.  It  has  the  ability  to  thrive  under 
adverse  conditions.  It  is  one  of  the  best  trees  for  planting 
on  the  arid  plains  of  the  Middle  West.  It  is  not  a  rapid  grower, 
but  under  average  conditions  will  grow  to  fence  post  size  in 
15  to  20  years.  It  grows  slowly  in  arid  or  semi-arid  regions. 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          87 

The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  strong,  and  rather  coarse  grained. 
It  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements, 
carriages,  furniture,  and  often  as  a  substitute  for  white  ash. 
It  has  a  relatively  high  fuel  value.  Although  the  wood  is  not 
very  durable,  it  is  often  used  for  fence  posts,  especially  where 
other  species  are  rare.  It  is  reproduced  by  seed  and  by  coppice 
growth.  The  seed  should  be  collected  from  the  trees  and 
either  kept  dry  over  winter  or  stratified  in  moist  sand.  If 
kept  dry  the  seed  should  be  soaked  in  water  several  hours 
before  planting.  It  can  be  propagated  by  sowing  the  seed 
broadcast.  The  trees  should  be  planted  closely  together,  4  by 
4  feet,  because  the  tree  does  not  have  a  heavy  foliage.  It  is 
often  mixed  with  hackberry,  box  elder,  white  elm,  Scotch  pine 
and  red  cedar.  It  is  sometimes  planted  for  windbreaks. 

Hackberry  (Celtis  accident  alls). — The  hackberry  is  a  tree 
of  wide  distribution  from  Massachusetts  to  Oregon  and  from 
Canada  to  New  Mexico  and  Florida.  It  is  found  in  the  forest 
in  mixture  with  other  species.  In  rich  soil  it  grows  to  be  a 
tree  100  feet  in  height  and  3  feet  in  diameter,  but  on  ordinary 
soil  it  is  a  much  smaller  tree.  It  is  a  long-lived  tree  and  of 
slow  growth.  It  will  live  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil  and 
with  a  very  small  amount  of  moisture.  It  will  live  where 
almost  any  other  tree  would  die.  It  is  adapted  for  planting 
in  the  arid  regions  of  the  Middle  West.  The  wood  is  straight 
grained,  light  and  elastic.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  fuel  and  the 
manufacture  of  cheap  furniture.  It  is  not  durable  in  contact 
with  the  soil  and  has  little  strength.  It  is  one  of  the  best  trees 
to  plant  for  windbreaks  on  land  too  dry  for  cottonwood  in 
Minnesota,  North  and  South  Dakota  and  northern  Nebraska. 
For  this  purpose  it  should  be  planted  in  double  rows  3  feet 
apart  with  the  trees  4  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  It  is  often 
planted  with  light- foliaged  trees  like  green  ash  and  cotton- 
wood  to  shade  the  soil.  It  is  a  tree  adapted  to  mixed  stands. 
It  seeds  abundantly.  The  seed  should  be  picked  from  the  trees 
in  the  fall  of  the  year  and  stratified  in  moist  sand.  It  should 


88  FARM  FORESTRY 

be  planted  in  the  nursery  in  drills  about  an  inch  deep  and 
allowed  to  grow  for  2  years  before  being  transplanted.  It 
has  few  insect  enemies  or  diseases. 

Hardy  Catalpa  (Catalpa  spcciosa). — The  natural  range  of 
the  hardy  catalpa  is  a  limited  region  in  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 
sissippi valleys  from  Indiana  to  Arkansas.  It  has  been  widely 
distributed  by  planting.  It  is  subject  to  injury  by  severe 
winters  far  outside  of  its  natural  range,  which  kills  back  the 
last  year's  growth.  Its  growth  depends  on  the  character  of 
the  soil.  It  will  succeed  only  on  moist,  well  drained,  deep,  fer- 
tile soil.  When  planted  under  other  conditions  it  will  not 
thrive.  It  is  not  adapted  to  stiff  clay  soils  nor  to  dry  condi- 
tions. It  has  been  widely  planted  by  farmers  throughout  the 
east  for  fence  posts,  but  with  success  only  on  most  favorable 
soils.  It  is  not  a  tree  for  general  planting.  It  succeeds  well 
in  the  Middle  West  where  the  conditions  are  adapted  to  it, 
and  often  makes  extremely  rapid  growth.  A  height  growth 
of  2,^/2  feet  a  year  and  a  diameter  growth  of  y2  an  inch  a  year 
are  not  uncommon  for  the  first  15  or  20  years.  It  is  a  val- 
uable fence  post  tree  in  many  regions.  It  matures  early  and 
makes  a  small  to  medium-sized  tree.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
it  does  not  produce  a  terminal  bud,  it  forms  a  very  crooked 
tree,  and  can  be  grown  to  fence-post  size  only  by  constant 
pruning.  The  wood  is  soft,  light,  elastic,  has  fairly  high  fuel 
value,  and  is  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground.  It 
often  lasts  30  to  40  years  as  fence  posts.  It  reproduces  freely 
by  seeds  and  by  sprouts.  The  pods  should  be  collected  in  the 
late  fall  or  winter  and  the  seed  hung  in  a  dry,  cool  place. 
Before  planting  the  seed  should  be  soaked  24  hours  in  water. 
The  seed  has  high  germination  per  cent  and  is  an  easy  tree 
to  grow  in  the  nursery.  The  seedings  should  be  planted 
about  6  feet  by  6  feet  apart.  After  growing  a  few  years  the 
trees  are  sometimes  cut  close  to  the  ground  and  a  single  sprout 
allowed  to  develop.  This  will  often  grow  8  to  10  feet  the  first 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          89 

season.    The  tree  is  not  usually  subject  to  diseases,  but  is  often 
attacked  by  insects. 

Honey  Locust  (Gleditsia  triacanthos) . — The  natural  range 
of  honey  locust  is  from  western  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
south  to  Georgia  and  west  to  eastern  South  Dakota  and  Texas. 
It  does  not  form  pure  stands,  but  is  distributed  throughout 
the  hardwood  forest.  It  grows  to  be  a  tree  140  feet  in  height 
and  6  feet  in  diameter,  but  usually  is  about  40  to  50  feet  high 
and  i  to  2  feet  in  diameter.  The  growth  is  fairly  rapid. 
On  favorable  sites  it  makes  an  annual  height  growth  of  I  to  2 
feet  and  an  annual  diameter  growth  of  one-third  to  one-half 
inch  a  year.  Under  less  favorable  conditions  it  takes  7  to  8 
years  to  grow  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  intolerant  of  shade. 
It  naturally  produces  large  clusters  of  thorns  along  the  trunk 
and  branches,  but  these  can  be  removed.  There  is  a  thornless 
variety  of  this  species.  Often  in  a  grove  of  honey  locust  indi- 
viduals will  be  found  without  them.  The  seeds  of  these 
trees  can  be  collected  and  grown.  Those  that  produce  seed- 
lings with  thorns  can  be  thrown  away  and  the  thornless  speci- 
mens planted.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong  and  coarse 
grained,  and  fairly  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground.  It  is 
used  chiefly  for  fuel,  fence  posts  and  poles.  It  is  useful  for 
hedges  and  windbreaks.  The  soils  of  the  Plains  and  Prairie 
region  are  well  adapted  to  this  tree.  It  will  withstand  very 
dry  conditions.  It  seeds  abundantly  and  is  easily  propagated. 
The  pods  should  be  collected  from  the  ground  and  the  seeds 
removed  and  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place  over  winter,  and 
treated  with  hot  water  before  planting  in  the  spring.  The 
swollen  seeds  should  be  removed  and  planted  at  once  and  the 
operation  repeated  with  the  remainder.  The  seeds  should  be 
sown  in  moist,  rich  soil  in  the  nursery  and  covered  lightly. 
They  will  grow  a  foot  high  the  first  year  and  will  be  large 
enough  to  transplant  to  permanent  situations  the  following 
spring.  It  should  be  planted  closely  together.  Two  by  eight 
feet  is  recommended  for  Prairie  regions.  For  shelter  belts 


90  FARM  FORESTRY 

it  should  be  planted  4  by  8  feet.  It  is  often  underplanted  with 
a  more  tolerant  species  of  tree.  The  honey  locust  is  not  so 
generally  injured  by  the  locust  borer  as  is  the  black  locust. 
It  should  prove  a  valuable  tree  to  plant  for  fence  posts  in  many 
regions. 

Osage  Orange  (Toxylon  pomiferon). — The  natural  range 
of  the  osage  orange  is  from  the  Arkansas  River  south  through 
southeastern  Indian  Territory  to  southern  Texas.  It  has  been 
widely  distributed  by  planting.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  mock 
orange  tree  because  of  the  shape  and  appearance  of  the  fruit. 
It  is  a  very  hardy  tree.  It  adapts  itself  to  a  wide  range  of 
soil  and  moisture  conditions,  and  its  ability  to  endure  drought 
makes  it  one  of  the  best  trees  to  plant  in  the  Plains  region. 
It  is  hardy  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts  in  the  east  and  Iowa 
and  southern  Illinois  in  the  Central  West.  It  does  not  form  a 
large  tree.  The  usual  rate  of  growth  under  good  conditions 
is  one-quarter  to  one-third  of  an  inch  a  year  in  diameter. 
Height  growth  is  slow  after  the  first  few  years.  It  forms  a 
branchy  tree  and  needs  severe  pruning  to  attain  good  form. 
The  heartwood  is  yellow  in  color,  heavy,  tough,  hard  and 
strong.  It  is  of  value  for  cabinet  purposes  and  for  the  manu- 
facture of  carriages,  machinery  and  tool  handles.  The  wood  is 
extremely  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil  and  the  fuel  value  is 
high.  It  has  been  planted  extensively  for  hedges  and  wind- 
breaks. The  green  "oranges"  or  fruit  can  be  collected  and  the 
seed  separated  by  soaking  in  water  until  the  pulp  ferments. 
The  seed  should  be  dried  and  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place  over 
winter.  The  seed  germinates  readily  when  planted.  In  start- 
ing plantings  the  trees  should  be  set  closely  together  to  over- 
come the  branchy  nature  of  the  tree.  They  are  often  planted 
2  feet  apart  in  rows  8  feet  apart.  It  is  often  mixed  with  cot- 
tonwood,  black  walnut  and  hardy  catalpa  on  rich,  moist  soils 
and  with  black  locust,  honey  locust,  white  elm  or  green  ash 
on  dry  upland  soils.  The  tree  is  usually  free  from  serious 
attacks  either  by  insects  or  fungus  diseases. 


1 


a  **« 


TKEES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          91 

Red  Oak  (Quercus  rubra). — This  is  one  of  the  largest 
trees  in  the  forests  of  the  Northern  States.  Trees  150  feet 
in  height  and  5  feet  in  diameter  have  been  found.  The  trees 
usually  average  70  to  go  feet  in  height  and  2  to  4  feet  in 
diameter.  It  occurs  naturally  scattered  over  the  eastern  part 
of  the  country,  running  as  far  south  as  Georgia  on  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains.  It  will  grow  well  on  all  soils  of  medium 
quality.  It  does  best  on  bottomlands  and  lower  slopes  where 
it  gets  some  moisture  in  the  soil.  It  will  thrive  on  heavy  clay 
soils.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  coarse  grained  and  strong. 
It  is  in  demand  for  lumber  in  many  regions.  The  tree  makes 
fast  growth  for  an  oak  and  it  would  be  one  of  the  best  to 
grow  for  fence  posts  and  ties  if  the  wood  were  more  durable. 
It  absorbs  creosote  readily,  however,  and  when  treated  will 
make  one  of  the  most  durable  of  posts  or  ties.  The  trees  repro- 
duce both  from  sprouts  and  from  acorns.  The  acorns  should 
be  planted  in  the  field  where  the  tree  is  to  grow.  Three  acorns 
should  be  planted  in  spots  about  5  to  6  feet  apart.  The  acorns 
can  be  treated  with  red  lead  to  prevent  destruction  by  rodents. 
This  can  be  done  by  dampening  the  acorns  and  shaking  in  a 
bag  with  a  small  amount  of  red  lead.  The  acorns  should  be 
planted  about  il/2  to  2  inches  deep.  Under  good  conditions 
as  on  bottomlands  and  lower  slopes,  red  oak  at  20  years  of  age 
will  reach  a  height  of  25  to  30  feet  and  a  diameter  breast 
height  of  from  3  to  5  inches,  and  at  40  years  a  height  of 
40  to  50  feet  and  8  to  10  inches  in  diameter.  Being  a  fairly 
tolerant  tree  it  should  be  of  value  for  underplanting  old  stands 
of  timber  and  for  mixing  with  European  larch,  white  pine  and 
other  trees. 

Russian  Mulberry  (Moms  alba  tartarica). — The  Russian 
mulberry  is  a  foreign  tree  that  has  proved  successful  in  the 
semi-arid  regions,  owing  to  its  ability  to  endure  almost  any 
amount  of  drought.  It  will  grow  on  either  sandy  or  clay  soils. 
It  does  not  grow  to  large  size,  but  under  favorable  conditions 
produces  very  rapid  growth.  A  growth  of  an  inch  in  diameter 


92  FARM  FORESTRY 

and  2^/2.  feet  in  height  has  been  attained,  though  usually  of 
much  slower  growth.  It  is  suited  to  the  climate  of  southern 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territory.  It  cannot 
endure  severe  winters.  It  forms  naturally  a  very  low  bushy 
tree,  and  requires  constant  pruning  to  produce  a  good  trunk. 
The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  elastic,  coarse  grained,  and  moder- 
ately strong.  It  splits  easily  and  has  high  fuel  value,  and 
makes  a  durable  fence  post.  It  is  often  used  for  windbreaks 
and  hedges.  Its  fruit  furnishes  food  for  birds.  It  reproduces 
by  seeds,  by  sprouts  and  by  cuttings.  The  seed  can  be  sepa- 
rated by  crushing  and  washing  the  berries.  The  seed  can  be 
kept  dry  over  winter,  but  it  is  better  to  stratify  it  in  moist 
sand.  It  should  be  planted  4  by  4  feet  for  lumber  and  2  feet 
apart  for  windbreaks. 

Shagbark  Hickory  (Hicoria  ovata]. — Shagbark  hickory 
grows  throughout  the  eastern  portion  of  the  country,  scat- 
tered throughout  stands  of  other  trees.  It  never  forms  pure 
stands,  though  often  occurring  pure  in  clumps  or  groups.  It 
grows  to  large  size,  often  reaching  130  to  140  feet  in  height 
and  20  to  30  inches  in  diameter.  It  prefers  a  fresh,  fertile 
soil.  It  will  grow  on  fairly  dry  soils,  but  for  best  growth  it 
demands  some  moisture.  The  wood  of  hickory  is  heavy,  hard, 
strong  and  tough.  The  wood  is  straight  grained  and  splits 
readily.  It  is  used  where  toughness  and  strength  is  necessary, 
as  in  vehicles,  handles,  axes,  automobile  and  wagon  rims, 
shafts  and  spokes.  It  has  the  highest  fuel  value  of  any  North 
American  wood.  The  growth  is  rapid  on  good  soil  after  the 
first  five  years,  a  foot  a  year  for  60  years  often  being  made. 
In  diameter  the  average  increase  is  an  inch  in  7  years.  It  has 
long  life,  often  living  for  250  to  300  years.  It  is  a  fairly  pro- 
lific seed-bearer  and  is  easily  propagated  by  planting  the  nuts. 
It  is  also  a  good  sprouter  in  youth.  The  nuts  should  be  strati- 
fied in  moist  sand  over  winter  and  planted  where  the  trees  are 
to  grow,  because  the  tree  produces  a  deep  taproot.  Hickory  is 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          93 

often  managed  by  the  coppice  system  on  short  rotations  for  the 
production  of  sprouts  used  for  making  handles  and  spokes. 

Pignut  Hickory  (Hicoria  glabra). — Pignut  hickory  is  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  country.  It  usually 
occurs  mixed  in  with  other  species.  It  often  reaches  a  height 
of  130  to  140  feet  and  3  to  4  feet  in  diameter.  It  forms  a  very 
strong  taproot  like  the  other  hickories.  It  grows  both  on 
clay  and  on  sandy  soil.  It  prefers  a  moist,  fairly  fertile  soil. 
It  succeeds  better  on  drier  situations  than  the  other  hickories. 
It  grows  at  about  the  same  rate  as  shagbark  hickory,  but  con- 
tinues rapid  growth  for  a  much  longer  period.  It  produces 
the  strongest  and  toughest  wood  of  all  the  hickories.  It  pro- 
duces seed  in  abundance,  and  since  they  are  rarely  edible, 
natural  reproduction  is  good.  In  addition  it  is  the  most  vigor- 
ous sprouter  of  all  the  hickories.  It  is  propagated  and  managed 
the  same  as  the  shagbark  hickory.  Owing  to  its  ability  to 
endure  fairly  dry  conditions,  it  is  a  valuable  tree  for  planting 
on  many  situations. 

Sugar  Maple  (Acer  saccharum). — This  tree  grows  naturally 
in  the  Eastern  United  States.  It  often  reaches  a  height  of 
1 20  feet  and  a  diameter  of  4  to  6  feet.  It  prefers  a  fresh, 
well-drained  soil.  It  grows  well  on  any  rich  soil.  It  will  not 
thrive  on  poor,  dry  ground.  The  wood  is  heavy,  strong, 
dense  and  hard,  but  not  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  It 
absorbs  creosote  readily,  however,  and  when  treated  posts 
will  last  15  to  20  years.  The  wood  is  in  demand  for  many 
purposes.  The  tree  is  grown  extensively  for  the  production 
of  maple  sugar.  Since  the  amount  of  sugar  produced  depends 
on  the  extent  of  the  leaf  surface,  the  trees  for  sugar  produc- 
tion should  be  spaced  wider  apart  than  for  the  production  of 
wood.  Six  feet  apart  is  the  usual  spacing  for  wood  pro- 
duction. The  tree  grows  well  in  pure  stands  and  can  also  be 
mixed  with  other  trees,  such  as  white  pine,  red  pine,  European 
larch,  red  oak,  yellow  poplar,  etc.  The  trees  are  easily  prop- 
agated from  seed.  The  seed  should  be  gathered  from  the 


94  FARM  FORESTRY 

trees  and  stored  over  winter  by  stratifying  in  moist  sand.  The 
tree  is  rather  slow-growing,  but  of  long  life.  Under  favorable 
conditions  of  soil  and  situation  at  30  years  of  age  trees  should 
reach  35  to  40  feet  in  height  and  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter 
breast  height. 

Silver  Maple  (Acer  saccharinum). — Silver  maple  is  widely 
distributed  over  the  eastern  portion  of  the  country.  It  thrives 
best  on  river  bottoms.  It  is  a  moisture-loving  tree  and  fails 
when  planted  on  dry  uplands,  but  it  wants  a  fairly  well  drained 
soil.  The  tree  grows  rapidly,  attains  large  size,  but  is  short- 
lived. It  often  grows  a  half  inch  in  diameter  a  year.  The 
wood  is  neither  strong  nor  durable.  It  is  easily  worked  and 
is  sometimes  used  for  flooring  and  furniture.  It  is  used  largely 
for  fuel.  It  is  often  planted  for  shelter  belts  because  of  this 
fact,  and  also  because  of  its  fast  growth.  Because  of  its 
brittle  wood  it  is  often  broken  by  storms.  It  reproduces  by 
sprouts  and  seeds.  The  seed  ripens  in  May  or  June  and 
should  be  planted  immediately  in  drills  in  the  nursery,  the 
seed  being  sown  thick,  for  it  is  rather  infertile.  The  seedlings 
will  grow  i  to  3  feet  high  the  first  season,  and  should  be  set 
out  the  next  spring.  They  should  be  spaced  about  6  by  8  feet 
apart.  On  dry  situations  it  can  be  mixed  with  osage  orange 
or  box  elder.  For  moist  situations  it  can  be  mixed  with  white 
willow,  cottonwood,  white  or  black  ash,  black  birch  or  walnut. 
It  is  a  hardy  tree  and  comparatively  free  from  insect  pests 
or  fungus  attacks. 

White  Ash  (Fraxinus  Americana). — White  ash  is  native 
to  the  Eastern  United  States.  It  is  a  tall,  slender  tree,  reach- 
ing a  height  of  100  feet  and  a  diameter  of  2  to  3  feet.  It 
prefers  and  makes  its  best  growth  on  a  rich,  moist  soil,  such 
as  bottomland  or  lower  slopes.  It  will  grow,  however,  under 
less  favorable  conditions.  It  will  not  grow  in  stagnant 
water.  The  wood  is  of  high  economic  value.  It  is  hard, 
strong,  heavy,  tough  and  elastic.  It  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  farm  tools  and  for  baskets,  handles,  interior  finish 


Chestnut  trees  killed  by  the  chestnut  bark  disease. 


/<      <     c   cc     c,c   c       '- 

rr^'  ?'•*  *c  t>«c 


TREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  FOR  PLANTING          95 

and  furniture.  It  is  fairly  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil. 
The  rate  of  growth  is  rapid,  but  varies  with  the  conditions 
of  moisture  and  situation.  Seedlings  can  be  started  from  seed 
planted  in  the  farm  nursery.  The  seed  should  be  gathered 
in  the  fall  and  hung  in  a  bag  in  the  barn  over  winter.  The 
seed, should  be  planted  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible,  sown 
thickly  in  drills  half  an  inch  deep.  The  seedlings  will  be  ready 
for  planting  the  following  spring.  It  can  be  planted  pure  or 
mixed  with  other  species  such  as  European  larch,  black  cherry, 
black  walnut,  pine,  etc.  The  trees  should  be  spaced  6  by  6  feet 
on  favorable  sites,  but  closer  together  on  poorer  sites.  At  40 
years  of  age  on  good  soil  white  ash  will  reach  a  diameter 
growth  of  8  to  10  inches  and  a  height  growth  of  50  to  60  feet. 
It  can  be  planted  for  fence  posts.  When  creosoted  the  posts 
will  last  many  years. 

White  Willow  (Salix  alba). — White  willow  was  introduced 
from  the  old  world  early  in  the  settlement  of  the  country. 
It  thrives  throughout  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  the 
country  and  in  most  places  has  run  wild.  It  reaches  a  height 
of  80  feet  and  a  diameter  of  4  to  6  feet.  It  prefers  a  moist 
or  wet,  rich,  alluvial,  sandy  loam,  but  will  thrive  well  on  the 
high,  dry  prairies  of  North  Dakota  and  Minnesota.  It  is  a 
rapid-growing  tree.  It  reproduces  naturally  from  seed,  but  the 
usual  method  of  propagation  is  by  cuttings  from  one  to  two- 
year-old  wood,  made  8  to  10  inches  long.  These  are  planted 
firmly  in  the  ground  so  that  only  two  buds  appear  above  the 
surface,  and  spaced  3  feet  by  6  feet  or  2  feet  by  8  feet  apart. 
It  is  sometimes  mixed  with  cottonwood.  Weeds  must  be 
kept  out  until  the  ground  is  well  shaded  by  the  crowns.  The 
wood  is  very  soft,  flexible  and  fairly  strong.  It  is  used  for 
cricket  or  baseball  bats,  in  turnery  and  cooperage.  The  char- 
coal is  said  to  make  the  finest  grades  of  gunpowder.  It  is 
sometimes  used  for  fence  posts,  although  it  has  but  little  dura- 
bility. When  planted  in  dense  stands  it  yields  straight,  light 
poles  for  many  purposes.  It  is  also  planted  for  windbreaks. 


96  FARM  FORESTRY 

Because  of  its  extensive  root  system  it  is  well  adapted  for 
holding  the  soil  along  streams  and  to  stop  erosion.  Many 
different  kinds  of  insects  live  on  the  tree  and  often  cause 
considerable  damage,  and  the  wood  is  sometimes  injured  by 
heart  rot  and  other  fungus  diseases. 

Yellow  Poplar  (Liriodendron  tulipifera). — This  tree  is  a 
native  of  the  Eastern  United  States  and  is  hardy  as  far  north 
as  Southern  New  England.  It  is  comparatively  free  from 
insects  and  disease.  It  has  fast  growth  and  high  quality  of 
wood.  The  tree  is  known  as  yellow  poplar,  tulip  poplar,  and 
when  young  as  white  wood.  No  other  tree  in  the  woodlot 
produces  such  a  clear,  straight,  cylindrical  trunk.  The  tree 
grows  to  be  125  feet  in  height  and  3  to  6  feet  in  diameter 
and  is  sometimes  much  larger. 

Yellow  poplar  is  exacting  as  to  soil  and  moisture  require- 
ments for  good  growth.  It  demands  deep,  fertile,  well-drained 
soil  with  a  constant  and  even  supply  of  moisture.  It  does  not 
thrive  on  shallow,  dry  soils  or  on  ridges  or  in  standing  water. 

The  wood  is  light,  soft,  tough,  easily  worked  and  of  fine 
texture,  but  not  strong.  The  brownish  yellow  heartwood  is 
fairly  durable.  The  wood  is  usually  cut  for  lumber,  and  is 
valuable  for  many  purposes,  such  as  construction,  interior 
finish,  woodenware,  crates,  etc. 

Yellow  poplar  can  be  raised  from  seed.  The  cones  of  seeds 
should  be  collected  from  the  trees  and  stored  over  winter  by 
stratifying  in  moist  sand.  The  seed  should  be  sown  thickly 
in  rows,  for  the  seed  is  very  infertile.  The  seedlings  should 
be  planted  after  one  year  growth.  In  planting  it  is  best  to 
mix  some  other  species,  as  white  or  red  pine,  European  spruce 
and  European  larch,  because  it  does  not  do  well  when  planted 
alone. 

Yellow  poplar  is  one  of  the  fastest-growing  hardwoods  on 
good  soil.  At  40  years  of  age  on  good  soil  the  diameter  breast 
height  will  be  from  TO  to  12  inches  and  the  height  from  60  to 
70  feet. 


CHAPTER  IX 

NATURAL   METHODS   OF   STARTING  AND   REPRO- 
DUCING A  WOQDLOT 

WOODLOTS  are  reproduced  naturally,  as  has  been  said,  by 
sprouts  from  the  stumps  of  trees  when  cut  and  from  seed 
sown  from  trees.  Most  of  our  woodlots  have  been  produced 
naturally  in  one  or  the  other  of  these  ways,  except  in  the 
treeless  regions.  Natural  methods  of  starting  woodlots  will 
be  the  ones  relied  on  by  farmers  where  reproduction  can  be 
secured,  because  they  are  much  cheaper  than  artificial  methods 
and  the  new  stand  is  started  without  any  particular  trouble 
and  often  without  expense  or  labor.  In  a  region  where  trees 
naturally  grow  there  should  be  little  difficulty  in  starting  a 
woodlot  naturally  from  seed  or  from  sprouts. 

SECURING  A  NEW  STAND  OF  TREES  FROM  SPROUTS  AFTER  THE  OLD 
TREES  HAVE  ALL  BEEN  CUT,  CALLED  THE  SPROUT  OR. 
COPPICE  METHOD 

Sprout  or  coppice  growth  is  one  of  the  most  common 
methods  and  one  of  the  surest  methods  of  naturally  reproduc- 
ing a  woodlot.  The  trees  are  all  cut  and  the  new  stand  starts 
from  sprouts  from  the  stumps.  This  method  is  applicable  to 
broadleaf  trees  that  sprout.  Conifers  or  evergreen  trees  are 
reproduced  naturally  only  from  seed.  There  are  but  few  of 
them  that  produce  sprouts  that  grow  to  tree  size  such  as  the 
redwood  in  the  West  and  the  shortleaf ,  loblolly  and  pitch  pines 
in  the  East.  Some  broadleaf  trees  will  also  start  from  sprouts 
from  the  roots  called  root  suckers,  especially  when  the  roots 
have  been  injured  or  bruised.  Poplar,  beech,  wild  plum  and 

97 


98  FARM  FORESTRY 

black  locust  are  examples  of  trees  that  reproduce  themselves 
by  root  suckers  as  well  as  by  sprouts. 

Trees  differ  in  their  ability  to  produce  thrifty  sprouts. 
Chestnut,  black  locust,  willow,  sugar  maple,  cottonwood,  ca- 
talpa  and  red  oak  are  among  the  best  sprouting  trees.  Hickory, 
basswood,  soft  maple  and  ash  also  sprout  well.  Old  trees 
beyond  60  years  usually  lose  their  power  of  sprouting,  so  a 
woodlot  managed  by  this  system  must  be  cut  early  in  life. 
The  trees  should  be  cut  in  winter  or  early  spring  before  the 
new  growth  has  started.  If  cut  in  summer  sprouts  will  be 
produced,  but  they  will  be  killed  by  frost  during  the  winter. 
The  stumps  should  be  cut  low  so  that  the  sprouts  will  not 
easily  be  broken  or  blown  off.  The  stumps  should  be  cut 
smoothly  and  in  a  slanting  direction,  so  that  they  will  shed 
water  and  keep  from  decaying  as  long  as  possible.  The  bark 
should  not  be  injured  or  loosened  from  the  stumps  or  the 
sprouting  ability  will  be  lost. 

Sprout  trees  grow  faster  in  early  life,  but  rarely  reach  as 
large  size  as  do  trees  that  have  started  from  seed.  A  sprout 
woodlot  is  used  to  grow  poles,  railroad  ties,  fence  posts  and 
cordwood.  Sawlogs  are  usually  grown  from  seed  trees.  After 
three  or  four  generations  of  sprouts  have  been  produced  from 
the  same  stump,  the  trees  produced  will  be  less  vigorous  and 
have  slower  growth  and  shorter  life.  For  this  reason  better 
trees  will  be  produced  from  the  stumps  of  seedling  trees  than 
from  the  stumps  of  sprout  trees.  So  young  trees  that  start 
from  seed  in  sprout  stands  should  be  encouraged  to  grow  to 
renew  the  trees  and  to  keep  the  woodlot  thickly  stocked. 

Not  all  the  sprouts  that  start  from  a  stump  should  be 
allowed  to  grow.  Several  of  the  best  sprouts  should  be  selected 
and  the  rest  either  cut  or  broken  off  the  stump,  or  the  top  of 
each  sprout  broken  to  prevent  further  height  growth.  Later 
the  number  of  sprouts  should  be  further  reduced  to  not  more 
than  two  or  three  to  each  stump.  Seedlings  of  trees  are  often 
planted  in  sprout  stands  to  fill  in  between  the  stumps,  which 


The  stump  of  a  large  tree  producing  but  a  few  sprouts. 


White  pine  seedlings  started  naturally  from  seed. 


STARTING  AND  REPRODUCING  A  WOODLOT        99 

often  stand  far  apart,  so  as  to  secure  good  density  of  trees. 
When  a  woodlot  is  cut  clean  a  few  of  the  more  vigorous  trees 
are  often  left  to  grow  to  large  size  while  the  new  woodlot  is 
being  established  by  sprouts.  These  trees  are  usually  of  seed- 
ling origin  and  are  allowed  to  grow  until  the  new  woodlot 
is  to-be  cut.  In  this  way  sawlogs  can  be  produced  as  well  as 
smaller  material.  This  is  known  as  compound  coppice. 

A  combination  is  sometimes  made  of  sprout  and  seedling 
reproduction  called  polewood  coppice,  that  is  applicable  to 
many  woodlots.  It  is  often  used  where  there  is  not  a  good 
market  for  small  material.  The  trees  are  allowed  to  grow 
to  large  size  for  making  poles,  piles,  ties  or  lumber.  Since 
these  trees  when  cut  will  have  passed  the  period  of  best  sprout- 
ing capacity,  a  new  stand  would  be  difficult  to  obtain  from 
sprouts.  If  such  a  stand  is  cut  clean  a  very  open  stand  will 
result.  To  secure  a  new  stand  the  trees  can  be  removed  in 
two  cuttings.  A  heavy  thinning  is  made  so  as  to  open  up  the 
trees  left  standing  to  the  light.  Seed  production  will  be  stim- 
ulated and  when  a  seed  crop  has  been  secured  and  seedlings 
result  the  remaining  trees  are  cut.  The  new  stand  will  be 
composed  of  seedling  trees  and  what  sprout  trees  have  started 
from  the  stumps.  Sometimes  the  woodlot  is  cut  clean  and 
seedlings  of  trees  are  planted  among  the  stumps  with  the  same 
result. 

STARTING    OR    REPRODUCING    A    WOODLOT    BY    SEED    SOWN    FROM 
NEIGHBORING  TREES,  THE   CLEAR-CUTTING   METHOD 

Sometimes  a  woodlot  is  entirely  cut  off  and  no  provision 
is  made  for  securing  a  new  woodlot,  but  the  trees  standing 
about  the  area  are  relied  on  to  sow  seed  for  starting 
new  trees.  When  coniferous  trees  are  cut,  like  the  pines 
and  spruces,  or  when  broadleaf  trees  cut,  are  old  and  beyond 
the  age  for  producing  vigorous  sprouts,  or  where  trees 
are  cut  in  summer  and  no  vigorous  trees  result  from  the 


100  FARM  FORESTRY 

sprouts  put  forth,  a  new  woodlot  must  be  started  naturally 
from  seed.  Some  tree  seed  is  blown  long  distances.  Light 
seeded  trees  on  the  edge  of  the  area  cut  over  will  soon  seed 
up  the  ground  with  new  trees,  provided  the  area  cut  is  not 
too  large  and  provided  the  soil  is  in  good  condition.  A  soil 
packed  hard  by  the  grazing  of  many  cattle  or  a  soil  that  has 
been  repeatedly  burned  over,  will  not  be  in  a  good  condition 
to  germinate  seed.  Cut-over  areas  are  often  seen  growing 
up  to  weeds  and  grass  instead  of  trees,  even  when  seed  trees 
are  growing  along  the  edge  of  the  tract,  because  of  the  poor 
condition  of  the  soil.  A  field  that  has  been  abandoned  will 
soon  grow  up  to  forest  trees  because  of  the  good  condition  of 
the  seed  bed.  Not  only  will  light  seeded  trees  seed  up  cut- 
over  areas,  but  heavy  seeds  like  walnut,  hickory,  oak  and 
chestnut  will  be  carried  in  by  birds  and  squirrels.  The  squirrels 
gather  large  quantities  of  such  seed,  and  besides  storing  the 
seed  in  their  hoards  in  hollow  trees  and  under  logs,  they  will 
carry  large  quantities  out  into  the  open  and  bury  them.  A 
large  part  of  this  seed  is  never  recovered  and  germinates  and 
grows  into  trees.  So  an  area  cut  over  will  soon  be  covered 
not  only  with  trees  having  light  seeds,  but  the  trees  having 
heavy  seeds  will  gradually  be  introduced.  Finally,  all  the 
trees  that  grow  naturally  in  the  region  will  be  found  growing 
on  the  cut-over  area.  If  the  area  cut  over  is  too  large,  not 
all  of  it  will  be  seeded  up  satisfactorily  with  trees.  Even  where 
the  area  is  small  and  there  are  many  trees  surrounding  it  to 
sow  the  seed,  the  reproduction  may  be  too  scattering  in  some 
places  and  too  thick  in  others.  Seedlings  from  the  tree  nursery 
should  be  planted  wherever  failures  occur. 

Sometimes  the  woodlot  is  cut  off  a  strip  at  a  time,  the 
strips  being  not  more  than  once  or  twice  as  wide  as  the  trees 
are  high.  When  the  strip  cut  over  is  seeded  with  seedlings 
from  the  neighboring  standing  timber  a  new  strip  is  cut,  and 
so  on  across  the  woodlot.  The  first  strip  cut  should  run  at 
right  angles  to  the  prevailing  winds  and  on  the  side  of  the 


STARTING  AND  REPRODUCING  A  WOODLOT       101 

woodlot  away  from  these  winds,  so  that  the  seed  from  the 
trees  left  standing  will  be  scattered  over  the  cut-over  strip. 
This  is  known  as  the  strip  method  of  reproducing  a  woodlot. 
Where  single  trees  or  groups  of  trees  are  cut  from  the  wood- 
lot,  the  area  cut  is  soon  seeded  from  the  surrounding  trees, 
provided  the  soil  conditions  are  favorable. 

STARTING    A    WOODLOT    BY    LEAVING    TREES    IN    TH;E  ^QUTTLNG   TO 
SEED   UP   THE   AREA,   THE    SEED-TREE 


Often  when  a  woodlot  containing  trees 
is  cut  clean,  several  large  seed  trees  per  acre  are  left  to  seed 
up  the  area  naturally  to  new  trees.  The  number  left  will  de- 
pend on  the  kind  of  trees  and  on  the  distance  to  which  the 
seed  is  scattered.  Usually  two  or  three  vigorous  and  wind-firm 
trees  are  sufficient  if  left  well  scattered  over  the  area.  When 
the  trees  are  not  naturally  wind-firm,  groups  of  trees  are  often 
left  so  that  the  trees  will  protect  each  other  from  the  wind. 
This  is  known  as  the  group  seed-tree  method.  The  seed-tree 
method  is  applicable  to  trees  that  are  wind-firm  and  that  have 
light,  easily  blown  seeds  that  will  germinate  on  clearings,  like 
pines,  spruces,  ash,  tulip,  poplar  and  maple.  Heavy  seeds  like 
walnut,  oak,  beech  and  chestnut  do  not  scatter  far,  and  this 
method  cannot  be  used  satisfactorily  with  such  trees. 

The  success  of  this  as  well  as  of  other  methods  of  natural 
seeding  will  depend  in  large  measure  on  the  condition  of  the 
seed  bed.  If  the  seed  is  sown  from  the  trees  soon  after  log- 
ging and  when  the  ground  is  torn  up  and  exposed,  natural  re- 
production will  usually  be  successful.  If  grass  and  tall  weeds 
take  possession  of  the  area,  reproduction  will  be  hard  to  estab- 
lish. Hogs  are  sometimes  driven  into  a  woodlot  that  is  to  be 
reproduced  naturally  by  seed  to  root  up  the  ground  and  expose 
the  mineral  soil. 


102  FARM  FORESTRY 

STARTING  A  NEW  WOODLOT  BY  REMOVING  THE  OLD  TREES  IN' 
TWO  OR  MORE  CUTTINGS,  THE  NEW  STAND  STARTING 
NATURALLY  FROM  SEED  SOWN  BY  THE  TREES  LEFT  AND 
UNDER  THEIR  SHELTER,  KNOWN  AS  THE  SHELTER-WOOD 
SYSTEM. 

According  to  this  method  ahout  half  the  old  trees  are,  re- 
moved at  tlit;  first  cutting.  The  trees  to  be  cut  are  taken  here 
and  ltlierfec  Jfcoughout  the  woodlot  so  as  to  break  the  canopy 
UKifo^mly^a^d^low  the  sunlight  to  fall  on  the  forest  floor. 
The  trees1  left  will  soon  start  to  grow  vigorously  after  the 
thinning,  because  the  increased  sunlight  will  enable  the  trees 
to  manufacture  more  food.  The  sunlight  falling  on  the  floor 
will  help  to  decay  the  leaves  and  twigs  and  furnish  additional 
food  for  the  trees.  The  result  will  be  a  heavy  crop  of  seed. 
The  seed  falling  on  the  ground  under  the  shade  and  shelter 
of  the  old  trees  will  germinate,  and  soon  the  floor  will  be 
covered  with  young  seedling  trees.  The  new  stand  may  be 
secured  at  once,  or  it  may  take  several  years  to  bring  about, 
depending  on  the  seed  crop.  A  woodlot  does  not  produce 
heavy  crops  of  seed  every  year. 

After  the  young  seedlings  are  well  started  the  rest  of  the 
old  trees  are  removed.  Many  of  the  seedlings  will,  of  course, 
be  destroyed  by  the  cutting  of  the  old  seed  trees,  but  enough 
should  escape  to  produce  a  well-stocked  stand.  Sometimes 
when  the  trees  are  very  thick  in  the  old  stand  and  so  are  not 
wind-firm,  and  the  removal  of  trees  around  them-  would  be  apt 
to  cause  them  to  be  blown  over,  several  light  cuttings  are  made 
instead  of  one  heavy  cutting,  removing  but  few  trees  at  a  time. 
In  this  way  the  trees  left  will  gradually  thicken  and  strengthen 
their  root  systems  and  become  wind-firm,  and  be  able  to  with- 
stand storms  without  falling  before  they  have  sown  their  seed. 

In  all  these  different  methods  it  will  often  be  found  that 
seedlings  of  trees  have  already  begun  to  grow  in  the  woodlot. 
This  is  called  advance  reproduction  and  should  not  be  injured. 


1 


STARTING  AND  REPRODUCING  A  WOODLOT       103 

Medium-sized  trees,  however,  should  not  be  left  standing,  for 
they  will  grow  a  wide-spreading  crown  and  occupy  the  space 
several  trees  should  occupy.  Any  advance  reproduction  present 
should  be  saved  from  damage  and  allowed  to  develop  with  the 
new  seedlings  obtained. 


CHAPTER  X 
CARING  FOR  THE  GROWING  WOODLOT 

WHETHER  a  woodlot  is  started  artificially  or  naturally,  it 
will  need  care  and  attention  throughout  its  life,  if  it  is  desired 
to  grow  the  greatest  amount  of  valuable  wood  material  in  the 
shortest  time  possible.  Nature  must  be  assisted  in  her  efforts 
by  giving  to  each  tree  the  conditions  necessary  for  its  best 
growth  and  development.  When  a  growing  woodlot  is  left 
entirely  to  nature  the  result  will  be  what  nature  would  be 
expected  to  produce,  a  stand  of  slowly  growing,  irregular  and 
usually  defective  trees.  A  stand  of  growing  timber  is  a  crop 
the  same  as  any  farm  crop,  and  will  need  oversight  and  atten- 
tion. If  this  is  given  the  results  are  surprising,  not  only  in 
the  character  of  the  trees,  but  in  the  much  shorter  time  it 
takes  to  grow  them. 

Cultivation  in  a  Forest  Plantation. — Cultivation  of  the 
ground  around  the  trees  after  planting  is  advisable.  It  is  neces- 
sary in  the  treeless  regions  of  the  Prairies  and  Great  Plains 
and  wherever  the  conditions  for  tree  growth  are  not  favorable. 
Transplanting  is  a  severe  shock  to  trees  and  even  under  the 
best  of  conditions  many  often  die.  With  proper  care  and 
cultivation  during  the  first  few  years  after  planting  a  much 
higher  percentage  will  live.  Cultivation  of  the  soil  will  con- 
serve the  soil  moisture,  will  prevent  the  growth  of  grass  and 
weeds,  will  help  the  trees  to  become  established  early,  lessen 
the  mortality  among  the  planted  stock  and  shorten  the  rota- 
tion. All  these  points  are  of  particular  importance  where  trees 
are  being  grown  for  fence  posts  or  other  material  for  sale. 
In  the  Eastern  Region  under  more  favorable  conditions  of 

104 


A  young  stand  of  hardwoods  in  which  a  cleaning  should  be  made  to 
remove  weed  trees  and  to  determine  the  trees  that  should  grow. 


CARING  FOR  THE  GROWING  WOODLOT  105 

moisture  and  growth,  cultivation  of  the  trees  helps  them  to 
become  established  and  hastens  their  growth  during  the  first 
few  years.  Field  crops  can  be  grown  between  the  rows  of 
trees,  so  that  the  entire  cost  of  cultivation  need  not  be  borne 
by  the  tree  crop.  The  number  of  cultivations  a  year  and  the 
number  of  years  the  plantation  should  be  cultivated  will  de- 
pend on  the  rapidity  of  growth  of  the  trees,  the  spacing  used, 
the  character  of  the  soil  and  situation  and  the  climate.  Culti- 
vation of  forest  trees,  as  with  fruit  trees,  should  not  be  con- 
tinued late  in  the  season  for  fear  of  the  trees  being  winter- 
killed. With  late  cultivation  the  wood  of  trees  continues  to 
grow  and  remains  soft  and  full  of  moisture.  Freezing  will 
kill  back  such  tender  shoots.  Cultivation  should  not  be  con- 
tinued beyond  midsummer.  When  the  trees  have  been  started 
from  seed  sown  by  the  trees  they  will  seldom  need  cultivation. 
The  young  trees  starting  from  seed  send  out  their  roots  in 
all  directions  and  become  well  established  at  once,  so  that 
usually  they  can  compete  with  the  grass  and  weeds  that  grow 
with  them  unless  this  material  becomes  too  high. 

Cleanings  in  a  Growing  Woodlot. — A  cleaning  is  a  thin- 
ning out  of  trees  in  a  very  young  stand.  Its  object  is  to 
improve  the  stand  and  to  determine  early  in  the  life  of  the 
stand  the  trees  that  are  to  grow.  It  is  usually  made  before 
the  trees  are  10  years  old.  Often  the  better  kinds  of  trees 
will  be  outgrown  by  inferior  ones  or  be  crowded  by  trees  of 
poor  form,  and  unless  these  are  removed  they  will  interfere 
with  or  cause  the  death  of  the  better  trees.  Sprouts,  because 
they  grow  much  faster  than  seedlings  for  the  first  few  years, 
will  often  overtop  the  seedlings  and  destroy  them  by  their 
shade.  When  the  seedlings  are  wanted  the  sprouts  inter- 
fering with  them  should  be  removed.  Often  in  natural  repro- 
duction the  young  seedlings  will  be  bunched  very  closely 
together  in  a  dense  growth.  The  removal  of  some  of  the 
seedlings  will  greatly  benefit  the  growth  of  those  left. 

A  cleaning  is  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  young  growing 


106  FARM  FOEESTEY 

trees  and  seldom  results  in  a  revenue  to  the  owner,  owing  to 
the  small  size  of  the  material  removed.  The  work  of  cleaning 
can  be  carried  on  in  the  winter  time.  It  will  repay  the  owner, 
in  that  the  trees  will  grow  faster  and  the  poorer  kinds  of 
trees  will  be  removed,  assuring  a  stand  of  desirable  trees  in 
the  future. 

In  making  a  cleaning  only  sufficient  material  should  be'  re- 
moved to  accomplish  the  purpose  desired.  Sometimes  a  tree 
overtopping  a  better  tree  can  be  broken  off  or  bent  to  the 
ground  so  that  it  will  no  longer  injure  the  tree  beneath.  Some- 
times the  cutting  of  a  single  branch  will  release  to  the  light 
the  tree  being  shaded.  Only  material  should  be  removed  that 
is  necessary,  so  that  the  cleaning  should  be  made  rapidly  and 
at  little  expense. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  the  cutting  of  lower  dead  or  living 
branches  from  trees.  The  objects  of  pruning  are  to  improve 
the  form  of  trees,  to  concentrate  the  growth  in  a  single  leader, 
and  to  secure  trunks  clear  of  limbs,  so  that  lumber  free  from 
knots  will  be  grown.  Pruning  would  not  be  a  practical  opera- 
tion over  a  large  forest,  but  in  a  small  farm  woodlot  or  forest 
planting  it  can  often  be  done  with  great  advantage  to  the  trees 
and  profit  to  the  owner.  Pruning  takes  place  naturally  in  the 
woodlot  where  trees  stand  closely  together.  Young  saplings 
are  often  seen  with  long,  clear  boles,  free  of  branches  for  many 
feet.  With  intolerant  trees  this  natural  pruning  takes  place 
rapidly.  With  tolerant  trees  the  lower  branches  will  remain 
alive  many  years  and  will  remain  on  the  tree  many  years 
after  they  have  died. 

In  pruning  limbs  they  should  be  cut  off  smoothly  and  as 
close  to  the  trunk  as  possible  without  tearing  the  bark.  With 
large  limbs  it  is  best  to  make  an  undercut  first,  so  that  the 
limb  in  falling  will  not  tear  the  bark  of  the  tree.  Limbs  that 
are  dead  and  the  wood  brittle  can  be  knocked  off.  The  trunks 
of  the  most  vigorous  trees  in  the  woodlot  should  be  pruned 
of  branches  for  from  16  to  20  feet,  so  that  at  least  one  good 


CARING  FOR  THE  GROWING  WOODLOT  107 

pole  or  sawlog  can  be  secured.  In  some  cases  only  dead 
branches  are  removed,  but  often  lower  live  branches  can  be 
cut  to  good  advantage.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  reduce  the 
crown  materially.  In  small  fast-growing  trees  wounds  will 
grow  over  quickly  before  the  wood  begins  to  decay.  If  the 
wounds  are  larger  than  a  square  inch  or  two  in  size  they  should 
be  painted  with  some  good  paint  until  the  wounds  have  been 
covered  with  new  bark.  Coniferous  trees  usually  cover  over 
such  wounds  with  pitch. 

Thinnings  Made  to  Increase  the  Rapidity  of  Growth  of 
Trees. — If  as  the  trees  in  a  woodlot  grew  the  crowns  did  not 
expand,  the  young  woodlot  could  be  left  entirely  to  nature 
just  as  a  farmer  leaves  his  wheat  to  grow  by  itself.  He  sows 
a  certain  number  of  seeds  to  the  square  foot  and  he  has 
learned  by  experience  that  when  planted  so  far  apart  indi- 
vidual plants  will  not  interfere  with  each  other.  But  trees  do 
not  grow  as  do  wheat  and  other  grains  which  grow  for  a 
year  only.  The  older  a  tree  becomes  and  the  higher  it  grows 
the  wider  it  attempts  to  spread  its  crown.  A  tree  will  grow 
rapidly  to  a  certain  height  only  with  a  restricted  crown.  Unless 
room  is  then  given  for  the  crown  to  spread  sidewise  the  sub- 
sequent height  growth  will  be  very  slow.  A  thinning  is  made 
in  a  young  growing  stand  so  that  the  density  of  the  crowns 
will  be  reduced  and  the  trees  left  will  be  able  to  expand  their 
crowns,  and  so  carry  on  rapid  height  growth.  It  is  made  for 
the  same  reason  that  a  farmer  thins  out  his  beets  or  other 
vegetable  crop.  If  he  allowed  all  to  grow  that  came  up  there 
would  be  few  beets  produced.  He  thins  out  the  plants  so  that 
the  few  that  are  left  evenly  spaced  will  have  room  to  expand 
and  develop. 

The  competition  between  the  trees  in  a  young  woodlot  be- 
comes very  great  when  it  is  near  the  end  of  the  large  sapling 
stage.  So  severe  may  be  the  struggle  that  the  trees  will  often 
cease  to  grow,  all  the  energy  of  growth  being  used  up  in 
contending  with  neighboring  trees.  Often  a  stand  of  young 


108  FARM  FORESTRY 

trees  which  are  grown  too  closely  together  will  show  scarcely 
any  growth  for  many  years.  This  is  because  the  crowns  being 
crowded  are  unable  to  manufacture  sufficient  food  and  the 
roots  are  unable  to  absorb  sufficient  food  and  moisture  for 
rapid  growth.  A  thinning  is  made  to  lessen  this  competition 
or  struggle  between  the  trees.  The  trees  to  remove  are  those 
with  the  smallest  crowns  or  those  that  have  fallen  behind  in 
the  struggle  for  existence.  Not  all  trees  have  equal  vigor  or 
grow  at  the  same  rate.  Some  will  in  time  forge  ahead  of 
their  fellows,  while  others  will  lag  behind.  It  is  those  that  are 
falling  behind,  the  suppressed  trees  or  badly  crowded  trees, 
that  should  be  removed  in  making  thinnings,  leaving  the  more 
vigorous  trees  or  dominant  trees  to  grow.  Where  all  the 
trees  seem  to  be  growing  equally  well  in  a  dense  stand  some 
of  them  must  be  removed  to  give  the  crowns  of  those  left 
more  room  to  develop.  The  tendency  will  be  to  remove  too 
many  trees.  Only  enough  trees  should  be  taken  out  to  liberate 
a  little  the  crowns  of  the  trees  left.  In  general  the  openings 
should  not  be  so  large  but  that  they  will  close  again  in  from 
3  to  5  years  by  the  growth  of  the  crowns  remaining.  The 
struggle  for  existence  must  riot  be  stopped  entirely,  for  it  is 
this  struggle  that  produces  the  long,  slender  boles  of  trees 
in  the  woodlot.  The  size  of  the  opening  that  can  be  made 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  rapidity  of  the  growth  of  the 
trees.  Rapidly  growing  trees  such  as  cottonwood  or  silver 
maple  should  have  their  canopy  opened  up  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  slower-growing  trees  such  as  ash,  oak  and  walnut. 
In  young  stands  the  trees  to  be  removed  can  be  selected  from 
those  that  should  remain  by  shaking  the  trees,  so  as  the  better 
to  see  the  crowns.  By  thinning  out  the  trees  lightly  in  this 
way  there  can  be  accomplished  in  a  short  time  what  it  would 
take  the  trees  themselves  years  to  bring  about,  that  is,  the 
death  of  the  trees  that  gradually  fall  behind  or  the  natural 
thinning  of  the  stand. 

Subsequent  Thinnings. — The  trees  left  after  the  first  thin- 


A  dense  stand  of  timber  in  which  a  thinning  has  never  been  made.  The 
crowns  of  the  trees  are  too  narrow  for  the  height,  resulting  in  slow 
growth.  A  thinning  should  be  made  to  permit  the  crowns  of  the 
trees  left  to  expand. 


The  result  of  a  thinning  in  a  dense  stand  of  lodge  pole  pine  shown  h. 
the  increased  width  of  the  annual  rings. 


CARING  FOR  THE  GROWING  WOODLOT  109 

ning  will  start  to  grow  faster  as  soon  as  the  crowns  are  liber- 
ated. It  will  not  be  many  years,  owing  to  the  spreading  of 
the  crowns  of  these  trees  sidewise,  before  their  crowns  will 
come  together  again  and  the  crown  canopy  will  be  intact.  The 
trees  will  have  grown  considerably  in  height  when  this  takes 
place  and  this  canopy  will  be  many  feet  higher  above  the  forest 
floor  than  it  formerly  was.  As  soon  as  the  crowns  touch  the 
struggle  starts  over  again  between  the  trees.  The  time  when 
this  new  struggle  begins  after  the  first  thinning  will  vary  with 
the  kind  of  tree  and  the  severity  of  the  first  thinning.  In 
general  in  about  ten  years  after  the  first  thinning  another 
struggle  will  have  started.  This  older  stand  will  live  over 
again  the  life  of  the  younger  stand.  The  more  severe  the  fight 
the  slower  will  the  trees  grow.  Soon  some  trees  will  begin 
to  forge  ahead  and  others  to  drop  behind.  The  tree  crowns 
again  become  separated  into  dominant,  intermediate  and  sup- 
pressed trees.  If  the  struggle  is  allowed  to  go  on  the  trees 
will  practically  cease  to  grow,  the  energy  being  used  up  in 
the  struggle  for  existence.  It  is  time  another  thinning  was 
made.  The  trees  that  have  fallen  behind  and  whose  crowns 
have  been  overtopped  should  be  removed  to  give  the  better- 
formed  and  taller  trees  more  room  to  expand.  Care  must  be 
taken,  as  before,  not  to  remove  too  many  trees  so  as  to  break 
the  crown  canopy  too  much.  The  struggle  must  continue  for 
the  production  of  clean  boles.  Owing  to  the  large  size  of  the 
trees  when  this  second  thinning  is  made  the  trees  cut  out  can 
be  worked  up  into  cordwood.  A  cleaning  and  the  first  thin- 
ning rarely  pay  for  themselves,  as  the  material  obtained  is 
small.  They  are  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  growing  timber. 
The  second  and  subsequent  thinnings  should  pay  for  the  time 
and  labor  needed  to  make  them  in  the  cordwood  obtained. 

Throughout  the  life  of  the  growing  stand  every  ten  or 
fifteen  years  similar  thinnings  should  be  made.  By  relieving 
the  stand  of  the  necessity  of  killing  out  the  trees  that  fall 
behind  and  by  giving  each  tree  the  room  it  needs  for  its  best 


110  FARM  FORESTRY 

and  fastest  growth,  much  time  can  be  gained,  and  trees  will 
grow  to  cordwood  or  standard  size  in  a  very  much  shorter 
time  than  if  they  had  been  left  to  themselves.  By  making 
thinnings  in  a  dense  stand  of  young  trees  we  are  helping 
nature  to  do  in  a  shorter  time  what  she  would  ultimately  bring 
about  unaided  in  a  much  longer  time.  By  judicious  thinnings 
throughout  the  life  of  a  stand  of  growing  timber  often  as 
much  as  twenty  years  can  be  cut  off  from  the  time  necessary 
to  bring  the  trees  through  to  maturity.  When  the  trees  are 
finally  mature  and  ready  for  the  harvest  but  a  few  will  be 
left  of  the  many  that  started.  Those  that  survive  and  form 
the  final  stand  will  be  fine  specimens  of  trees,  the  survivors 
in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

Thinnings  to  Improve  the  Character  of  the  Woodlot. — 
Woodlots  that  have  not  received  proper  care  will  often  be 
found  full  of  defective,  ill-shapeii  and  weed  trees.  A  thinning 
made  to  remove  this  material  from  the  woodlot  to  benefit 
the  trees  remaining  is  called  an  improvement  thinning. 

In  removing  this  material  from  the  woodlot  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  remove  too  many  trees  at  one  time.  As  far  as 
possible  the  openings  made  in  the  canopy  should  be  small, 
so  that  the  neighboring  crowns  will  close  over  them  in  a  few 
years.  The  improvement  should  be  a  gradual  one.  The  wood 
needed  for  use  on  the  farm  should  be  selected  from  the  poor 
material  year  after  year  until  it  is  all  removed.  A  small 
amount  removed  each  year  for  several  years  will  accomplish 
the  same  result  as  many  trees  removed  in  one  year,  and  their 
removal  in  this  way  will  be  an  advantage  to  the  woodlot.  If 
too  many  trees  are  removed  at  one  time  the  woodlot  will  de- 
teriorate because  of  the  exposure  of  the  soil  to  the  sun  and 
other  elements.  One  of  the  first  principles  of  growing  forest 
trees  successfully,  as  we  have  learned,  is  in  keeping  the  forest 
floor  dark,  so  that  grass  and  weeds  which  dry  and  exhaust 
the  soil  will  not  grow.  If  the  canopy  is  broken  too  much 
by  the  removal  of  too  many  trees  in  a  growing  woodlot  those 


The  ordinary  form  of  farm  woodlot  in  need  of  an  improvement  thinning, 


A 


trmb'er  eft&rt'  has'  been  properly  thinned.     The  products  of 


thinning    pay  for  themselves    in    the  cordwood    or  other    material 
obtained, 


CARING  FOR  THE  GROWING  WOODLOT  111 

that  remain  will  be  apt  to  develop  large  limbs  and  the  trees 
become  of  poor  form. 

The  trees  to  select  for  cutting  in  the  woodlot  in  order  to 
improve  its  character  are  those  that  the  woodlot  can  well  do 
without. 

Large  Limby  Trees. — In  nearly  every  woodlot  large  trees 
with  long  limbs  can  be  found  that  spread  over  a  large  space. 
They  are  sometimes  called  wolf  trees.  They  are  usually  of 
slow  growth,  having  passed  the  period  of  greatest  vigor.  Such 
trees  ought  to  be  removed,  for  they  occupy  the  space  many 
vigorously  growing  trees  might  occupy.  Usually  they  are 
allowed  to  grow  from  year  to  year  because  of  the  difficulty 
of  cutting  them  out  and  the  labor  necessary  to  work  them  up 
into  cordwood.  The  removal  of  such  trees  is  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  a  woodlot.  It  enables  several  trees  to  start  and 
grow  in  the  place  of  the  tree  removed. 

Defective  Trees. — Often  trees  can  be  found  whose  crowns 
have  been  badly  broken  by  winds  or  snow  or  other  causes. 
Owing  to  the  reduced  size  of  the  crowns  these  trees  will  have 
but  a  slow  growth  and  there  is  danger  of  decay  entering  the 
trees  through  the  broken  parts.  They  should  be  removed  to 
make  way  for  others. 

Misshapen  Trees. — The  trees  that  should  be  encouraged  to 
grow  in  the  woodlot  are  those  with  straight  full  boles.  Such 
trees  should  be  kept  to  grow  to  large  size.  Trees  with  crooked 
or  gnarled  trunks,  or  those  that  fork  close  to  the  ground,  or 
that  have  been  struck  by  lightning  or  are  otherwise  misshapen, 
should  be  cut  before  those  of  better  form. 

Stagheaded  or  Spiked-topped  Trees. — Often  trees  will  be 
found  with  dead  tops,  due  to  one  cause  or  another.  These 
have  usually  passed  their  prime.  The  dead  tops  show  that 
they  are  no  longer  growing  vigorously.  They  should  be  re- 
moved, to  allow  younger  and  faster  trees  to  take  their  places. 

Diseased  Trees  and  Insect-infested  Trees. — When  trees 
become  weakened  from  any  cause  they  become  the  prey  of 


112  FARM  FORESTRY 

insects  and  diseases.  Such  trees  rarely  make  satisfactory 
growth  and  they  are  also  a  menace  to  the  trees  around  them, 
because  of  the  danger  of  the  disease  spreading.  Trees  that 
have  begun  to  decay  or  that  are  badly  attacked  by  insects 
should  be  immediately  removed. 

Weed  Trees. — Every  woodlot  contains  many  species  of 
trees  that  are  of  little  value  or  of  no  use  on  the  farm.  These 
are  called  weed  trees,  such  as  dogwood,  ironwood,  blue  beech, 
bird  cherry  or  any  kind  of  tree  that  does  not  serve  some  use- 
ful purpose.  These  trees  occupy  space  in  which  more  useful 
kinds  of  trees  might  grow. 

Dead  Trees. — Dead  trees  and  limbs  and  fallen  trees  should 
be  utilized  for  cordwood.  Such  material  often  serves  as  the 
breeding  place  for  insects  that  may  attack  living  trees.  Where 
such  material  is  utilized  before  it  begins  to  decay  it  will  make 
satisfactory  fuel  wood. 


TREES    THAT    SHOULD    NOT    BE    CUT,    BUT    SHOULD    BE    ALLOWED 
TO   REMAIN   IN  THE   WOODLOT 

No  tree  should  be  removed  unless  there  is  some  good  reason 
for  cutting  it  or  unless  it  is  needed  for  a  special  purpose,  and 
no  tree  of  less  value  will  serve  that  purpose. 

In  general,  young,  thriftily  growing  trees  should  not  be 
cut  until  mature.  They  are  producing  a  high  rate  of  interest 
in  the  amount  of  wood  laid  on  each  year,  and  are  increasing 
rapidly  in  value. 

In  the  ordinary  farm  woodlot  of  irregular  form  no  tree 
should  be  removed  unless  there  are  smaller  trees  beneath  it  to 
grow  up  and  occupy  its  place  or  unless  some  provision  is  made 
for  starting  new  trees.  Many  woodlots  have  large  holes  in 
the  canopy  where  trees  were  removed  many  years  before. 
Grass  forming  under  the  openings  prevents  young  trees  from 
starting.  Such  openings  should  be  planted  with  trees. 


CARING  FOR  THE  GROWING  WOODLOT  113 

A  tree  should  not  be  removed  if  its  shade  is  needed  to  pro- 
tect the  forest  floor  or  if  its  removal  would  expose  large  areas 
to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  rain.  Trees  needed  for  sowing 
seed  should  not  be  removed. 


CHAPTER  XI 

CARING  FOR  THE  WOODLOT  STARTED  FROM  SPROUTS 
AND  THE  ORDINARY  FARM  WOODLOT 

Caring  for  the  Sprout  Woodlot. — The  method  of  caring 
for  a  growing  woodlot  started  from  sprouts  does  not  differ 
materially  from  the  method  of  caring  for  a  forest  planting. 
The  same  operations  of  cleaning,  pruning,  planting  up  and 
thinning  the  stand  as  it  develops  are  carried  out. 

Seedling  trees  oi  valuable  kinds  that  have  started  among 
the  stumps  should  be  favored  in  making  a  cleaning.  As  we 
have  already  noted,  sprouts  from  trees  that  have  started  from 
seed  make  more  vigorous  trees  than  sprouts  from  trees  that 
started  as  sprouts,  and  that  in  time  through  several  genera- 
tions sprout  trees  may  lose  their  sprouting  capacity.  Where 
sprouts,  even  of  the  better  kinds  of  trees,  threaten  to  overtop 
seedling  trees  of  valuable  species,  the  sprouts  should  be  re- 
moved or  their  growth  otherwise  impeded,  as  by  breaking  off 
the  leaders. 

Where  the  stumps  of  the  trees  cut,  stand  far  apart  and 
there  are  no  seedling  trees  coming  up  to  fill  in  the  spaces  be- 
tween, trees  should  be  planted.  Planting  of  trees  or  the  mak- 
ing of  seed  spots  is  often  a  necessary  operation  in  a  sprout 
stand.  If  such  areas  are  not  planted  with  valuable  kinds  of 
trees  inferior  species  will  finally  take  possession  of  the  soil 
or  the  woodlot  will  not  be  well  stocked  with  trees.  In  plant- 
ing in  a  cut-over  woodlot  large  stock  must  be  used,  so  that 
the  roots  will  be  well  below  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil,  which, 
because  of  the  large  amount  of  humus,  will  dry  out  quickly. 
Tr^es  at  least  three  or  four  years  old  should  be  used. 

114 


Young  coppice  growth  of  white  and  black  oak.  The  stumps  standing 
far  apart  show  the  necessity  of  planting  small  trees  to  secure  a 
fully  stocked  stand. 


THE  WOODLOT  STARTED  FROM  SPROUTS         115 

In  time  the  crowns  of  the  different  sprouts  and  of  the  trees 
that  have  started  from  seed  or  that  have  been  planted  will 
come  together  and  form  a  crown  cover  or  canopy.  From  then 
on  the  life  history  of  the  sprout  stand  will  be  similar  to  that 
of  a  forest  plantation  or  even  aged  stand,  and  it  should  receive 
the  same  treatment.  As  soon  as  the  competition  between  the 
trees  becomes  strong,  a  thinning  must  be  made  to  release  the 
crowns  of  the  better  and  more  vigorous  trees,  and  similar  thin- 
nings should  be  made  throughout  the  life  of  the  sprout  stand 
whenever  needed. 

CARING   FOR  A    WOODLOT   THAT    HAS    STARTED    NATURALLY   FROM 
SEED    SOWN    BY    TREES 

When  the  woodlot  has  started  from  seed  sown  by  neigh- 
boring trees  or  from  trees  left  for  the  purpose  of  sowing  seed, 
the  resultant  stand  will  be  apt  to  be  more  or  less  irregular. 
Near  the  seed  trees  the  ground  may  be  well  covered  with  young 
seedlings.  If  the  seedlings  stand  5  or  6  feet  apart  each  way 
the  reproduction  will  be  satisfactory,  for  that  is  as  closely  to- 
gether as  trees  would  ordinarily  be  planted  in  starting  a  forest 
planting.  Usually  there  will  be  many  more.  There  will  be 
many  areas  where  the  seedlings  will  be  far  apart  or  where  no 
seedlings  will  have  started.  Such  areas  should  be  planted 
with  seedlings  from  the  farm  nursery.  It  is  essential  that  the 
woodlot  be  well  stocked  from  the  start  if  trees  of  good  form 
and  of  value  for  use  are  expected.  Openings  in  a  woodlot 
usually  persist.  The  ground  becomes  covered  with  a  thick 
sod  or  a  mat  of  weeds  and  bushes,  that  prevent  subsequent 
seeding  of  trees. 

A  cleaning  ordinarily  must  be  made  sooner  in  the  life  of 
a  naturally  produced  woodlot  than  in  one  in  which  the  trees 
are  planted  and  evenly  spaced  from  the  start.  This  is  because 
wherever  reproduction  has  been  good  the  trees  will  stand 
thickly  together,  often  forming  thickets  through  which  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  pass.  The  competition  between  the  trees 


116  FARM  FORESTRY 

in  such  dense  stands  begins  early  and  should  be  stopped  by 
thinning  out  the  less  likely  trees.  In  many  woodlots  before 
the  old  trees  are  cut  young  seedling  trees  will  get  started  be- 
neath them  and  grow.  Especially  is  this  true  where  the  trees 
do  not  stand  closely  together  allowing  considerable  light  to 
fall  on  the  forest  floor  or  where  the  trees  are  old  and  the 
crowns  thin.  When  the  old  trees  are  removed  this  advance 
reproduction  is  present  and  will  start  to  grow  under  the  stim- 
ulation of  increased  sunlight.  Where  this  advance  reproduc- 
tion is  of  desirable  species  and  does  not  interfere  too  much 
with  the  new  reproduction  it  should  be  encouraged.  Often 
such  advance  reproduction  is  of  poor  species  of  trees,  or  be- 
cause of  its  greater  age  and  size  it  may  interfere  with  or  kill 
out  many  seedlings  of  more  valuable  kinds.  In  this  case  the 
advance  reproduction  should  be  cut  out,  liberating  the  seed- 
lings beneath  it.  Such  a  cutting  is  known  as  a  liberation  cut- 
ting. Where  advance  reproduction  is  of  value  for  shading 
or  protecting  the  soil  it  should  be  allowed  to  remain. 

When  the  young  stand  has  grown  up  so  that  the  crowns 
meet  and  the  floor  is  shaded  the  life  of  the  woodlot  as  a 
unit  begins.  Its  subsequent  treatment  will  be  the  same  as 
for  planted  stands.  Thinnings  must  be  made  throughout  its 
life  whenever  the  competition  between  the  trees  becomes  too 
strong  or  whenever  it  is  desired  to  improve  the  character  of 
the  stand. 

CARING    FOR    THE    ORDINARY    FARM    WOODLOT 

The  ordinary  small  woodlot  differs  in  form  from  the  even 
aged  woodlots  that  start  from  planting  seedlings  or  that  grow 
from  sprouts  or  from  seed  sown  from  trees  soon  after  the 
woodlot  has  been  cut.  The  ordinary  farm  woodlot  is  com- 
posed of  trees  of  all  sizes  and  ages  mixed  in  together.  It 
does  not  have  a  single  crown  cover  as  do  even  aged  woodlots. 
The  crowns  of  trees  stand  at  all  elevations,  from  those  of  one- 
year-old  seedlings  to  those  of  poles  or  veterans.  We  have 


The  natural  woodlot.     The  result  of  lack  of  care  and  attention.     The 
woodlot  filled  with  old,  defective,  broken  and  dead  trees. 


The  ideal  form  of  the,  small  farm  woodlot.    Trees  of  all  sizes  and  kinds 
mixed  in  together. 


THE  WOODLOT  STAETED  FROM  SPROUTS         117 

learned  that  such  a  woodlot  has  an  irregular  form.  It  origi- 
nates usually  from  the  method  of  cutting  the  trees.  Where 
the  woodlot  is  cut  clean  all  trees  being  removed  and  the  new 
growth  starts  at  once,  an  even  aged  stand  results.  If  instead 
of  cutting  all  the  trees  at  once  the  owner  cuts  out  a  few  of 
the  larger  trees  year  after  year,  an  irregular  woodlot  will 
result.  When  a  large  tree  is  removed  there  will  be  an  opening 
formed  in  the  canopy.  Little  seedlings  under  the  opening 
will  be  stimulated  to  growth  by  the  increased  light  and  will 
at  once  start  to  fill  in  the  vacant  space  in  the  canopy.  In 
this  way  the  woodlot  will  in  time  become  filled  with  trees  of 
all  ages. 

Because  the  owner  in  cutting  the  trees  makes  a  selection 
of  those  to  cut  out,  choosing  certain  ones  from  those  surround- 
ing them,  this  method  of  reproducing  a  woodlot  is  called  the 
selection  system  and  the  irregular  forest  that  results  is  called 
a  selection  forest.  On  large  forests  the  owner  may  decide  to 
cut  out  all  trees  down  to  a  certain  diameter,  saving  for  future 
growth  all  the  small  trees  below  that  diameter.  This  is  also 
a  form  of  the  selection  method. 

The  future  of  the  irregular  form  of  woodlot  depends,  of 
course,  on  the  young  seedlings  that  start  to  grow  under  the 
old  trees  or  in  openings  that  are  caused  by  the  removal  of  those 
trees.  They  are  the  children  of  the  woodlot.  If  they  are 
destroyed  year  after  year  by  fire  or  grazing  or  if  they  are 
cut  out  thoughtlessly  as  the  owner  thinks  to  improve  the  wood- 
lot,  there  will  be  no  trees  to  grow  up  and  take  the  place  of 
the  older  trees  when  they  are  removed.  In  no  form  of  wood- 
lot  is  it  more  necessary  to  take  good  care  of  the  young  growth 
than  in  the  irregular  form.  In  all  even  aged  woodlots  after 
the  crowns  of  the  trees  are  well  up  above  the  heads  of  cattle, 
a  little  grazing  may  do  no  immediate  harm  to  the  trees,  though 
it  would  be  better  for  the  trees  if  grazing  were  excluded.  But 
where  the  maintaining  of  the  forest  capital  and  the  future 
of  the  woodlot  depends  on  the  young  seedlings  and  saplings 


118  FARM  FORESTRY 

that  start  each  year  in  the  woodlot,  they  must  be  protected  and 
encouraged. 

Where  there  are  no  younger  trees  or  seedlings  beneath 
the  older  trees  and  no  seedlings  start  in  the  openings  when 
the  trees  are  removed  after  waiting  a  few  years,  seedlings 
of  trees  should  be  planted.  Trees  should  be  grown  in  the 
farm  nursery  for  this  purpose  and  they  should  be  of  larger 
size  than  required  for  planting  in  the  open.  They  can  be 
allowed  to  grow  to  large  size  in  the  nursery,  so  that  when 
planted  out  they  will  soon  grow  to  trees  of  value.  Often 
young  seedlings  can  be  taken  from  some  other  portion  of  the 
woodlot  and  planted  in  the  openings.  Along  the  edges  of 
woodlots  or  around  openings  there  are  often  many  trees  grow- 
ing that  will  soon  begin  to  crowd  each  other.  Some  of  these 
trees  can  be  utilized  for  this  purpose  before  they  die.  It 
is  usually  necessary  to  plant  trees  in  the  woodlot  to  keep  it 
well  stocked.  By  planting  the  trees  or  the  seeds  of  trees  is 
the  only  way  to  obtain  trees  of  valuable  kinds.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  trees  that  are  far  better  to  grow  in  woodlots 
than  those  many  times  found  growing. 

All  the  various  cultural  operations  described  for  other 
forms  of  woodlots  can  be  carried  out  to  good  effect  in  the 
irregular  form.  Where  valuable  kinds  of  trees  are  planted  to 
fill  vacant  spaces  it  may  be  necessary  to  cultivate  the  soil. 
A  thick,  heavy  sod  sometimes  grows  in  such  situations.  This 
may  deprive  the  trees  set  out  of  moisture  and  food  before 
they  get  a  good  hold  on  the  soil  and  so  they  will  die.  Culti- 
vating the  trees  will  make  them  more  sure  of  withstanding 
the  transplanting  and  will  make  them  grow  faster  during  the 
first  few  years  so  they  will  keep  ahead  of  the  weeds.  Clean- 
ings are  often  necessary  where  many  trees  grow  up  together. 
Where  inferior  trees  begin  to  crowd  or  overtop  more  valuable 
kinds  they  should  be  removed  or  their  tops  broken  to  retard 
their  growth.  Often  sprouts  from  the  stumps  of  the  trees 
cut  where  very  numerous  will  interfere  with  the  growth  of 


The  wornout  woodlot.     The  old  trees  should  gradually  be  removed  and 
utilized  and  the  woodlot  restocked  by  planting  trees. 


THE  WOODLOT  STARTED  FROM  SPROUTS         119 

each  other  and  will  need  to  be  thinned  out.  Or  the  sprouts 
that  start  may  because  of  their  faster  growth  begin  to  crowd 
more  valuable  seedlings  and  should  be  removed.  Thinnings 
to  increase  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  older  trees  as  well  as 
the  younger  trees  where  they  stand  too  thickly  should  be  made, 
the  trees  that  are  falling  behind  being  removed  and  the  more 
vigorous  trees  given  more  room  for  their  development.  Thin- 
nings to  improve  the  character  of  the  stand  should  be  made 
every  few  years,  the  trees  to  cut  for  cordwood  being  chosen 
from  those  the  woodlot  can  well  do  without.  There  is  no 
owner  of  forest  land  who  can  practice  forestry  more  inten- 
sively or  to  better  advantage  than  the  farmer  on  this  kind  of 
woodlot. 

THE  WORNOUT  WOODLOT 

Wornout  woodlots  are  those  in  which  the  forest  capital 
or  the  number  of  trees  has  been  greatly  reduced  from  the 
normal  number  that  should  be  present.  The  trees  stand  far 
apart  and  no  longer  shade  the  floor.  Grass,  weeds,  berry 
bushes  and  shrubs  cover  the  ground.  The  trees  are  nearly 
all  old  and  more  or  less  defective.  Such  a  condition  results 
from  removing  too  many  trees  year  after  year,  from  the 
constant  removal  of  the  fastest  growing  and  more  vigorous 
trees  and  leaving  the  poorer  ones,  or  from  grazing  or  fire 
that  have  killed  the  young  trees  and  so  have  destroyed  the 
future  of  the  woodlot.  Such  a  woodlot  is  of  but  little  value 
for  a  farm.  The  trees  being  large  will  not  supply  the  many 
kinds  and  sizes  of  material  needed.  It  is  often  turned  over 
to  grazing. 

A  wornout  woodlot  needs  to  be  restocked  by  planting. 
There  is  no  other  sure  way  of  increasing  the  forest  capital. 
The  ground  among  the  trees  might  be  fertilized  and  cultivated 
and  the  trees  thus  stimulated  to  seed  production  and  the  soil 
put  in  good  condition  to  receive  the  seed  when  a  seed  year 
is  present.  But  it  is  difficult  to  renew  a  wornout  woodlot  by 


120  FARM  FORESTRY 

natural  reproduction.  The  trees  are  too  old  to  produce  seeds 
abundantly.  Should  a  seed  year  come,  and  it  might  be  several 
years  before  seed  would  be  produced,  the  seed  might  be  in- 
fertile or  be  eaten  by  squirrels.  The  only  practical  and  sure 
method  is  to  gradually  remove  the  old  trees  as  they  are  needed 
for  cordwood  or  other  purposes  and  to  plant  trees  of  desirable 
species  that  have  either  been  raised  in  the  farm  nursery  or 
transplanted  from  some  other  woodlot,  Seedlings  can  also 
be  obtained  from  nurserymen.  It  is  not  necessary  to  plant 
the  whole  woodlot  in  one  year.  An  acre  or  less  planted  each 
year  will  soon  cover  the  woodlot  with  young  trees. 

The  planting  of  the  seed  of  trees  in  the  woodlot  is  one 
of  the  best  methods  of  keeping  up  the  stock  of  trees.  Seed 
can  be  gathered  in  the  fall  of  the  year  and  either  planted  at 
once  by  thrusting  a  stick  in  the  ground  and  planting  the  seed 
in  the  hole  made  or  the  seed  can  be  stratified  over  winter 
and  planted  in  the  spring.  Many  seeds  can  be  gathered  in 
the  spring  of  the  year  after  the  snow  has  disappeared,  that 
have  been  stratified  naturally  on  the  ground  over  winter. 
Where  squirrels  are  not  numerous,  acorns  of  the  many  species 
of  oak,  walnuts,  butternuts,  hickory  nuts,  beech  nuts  and  chest- 
nuts can  be  gathered  and  planted  in  holes  made  in  the  ground. 
Smaller  seeds  like  maple,  ash,  yellow  poplar  and  locust  can  be 
gathered  and  planted  in  seedspots  in  the  woodlot.  Seed  that  has 
been  stratified  naturally  over  winter  will  start  to  grow  at  once 
as  soon  as  the  ground  becomes  warm.  There  is  no  more  prac- 
tical or  effective  way  of  starting  trees  growing  in  the  woodlot. 

THE   GROWING   OF   BASKET    WILLOWS 

The  growing  of  basket  willows  can  be  profitably  carried 
on  by  farmers  who  have  land  that  is  subject  to  inundation  or 
flooding  by  water.  Such  land  is  of  little  value  for  other  pur- 
poses. The  basket  willow  industry  has  developed  rapidly  in 
recent  years  and  there  has  been  a  constant  demand  for  willow 
rods. 


The  basket  willow  showing  the  character  of  rods  produced  by  the  Lemley 

willow. 


THE  WOODLOT  STARTED  FROM  SPROUTS         121 

The  basket,  willow  is  a  variety  of  the  willow  family  that  is 
especially  adapted  for  this  purpose.  The  common  willows  do 
not  yield  rods  of  high  grade.  Most  of  those  in  use  have  been 
imported  from  Europe.  The  willow  is  not  a  tree  that  demands 
water.  It  grows  best  on  rich,  moist,  well  drained  bottomlands. 
It  will  thrive  on  land  subject  to  inundation  provided  there  is 
good  drainage.  It  will  not  grow  well  under  swampy  con- 
ditions. If  the  land  is  flooded  for  long  periods  of  time  the 
willow  will  not  live.  The  species  commonly  planted  are  the 
Welsh  or  purple  willow,  the  Lemley,  patent  Lemley  or  Caspian 
willow,  the  American  green  or  almond  willow  and  the  common 
white  willow. 

The  basket  willow  is  propagated  by  cuttings  from  one  year- 
old  shoots  cut  into  sections  10  inches  to  a  foot  long.  These 
are  planted  in  rows  in  the  willow  bed  or  holt  from  16  to  20 
inches  apart,  the  cuttings  being  spaced  from  6  to  9  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  The  cuttings  are  either  forced  into  the 
ground  or  set  in  holes  made  by  a  stick  or  sharp  iron.  They 
are  planted  upright  with  the  buds  up  so  that  only  an  inch 
remains  above  the  ground.  Close  planting  retards  the  growth 
of  weeds  and  results  in  greater  yield  per  acre  and  in  straighter 
and  less  branchy  rods. 

The  land  for  a  willow  holt  should  be  thoroughly  cultivated 
as  for  a  field  crop  and  limed  and  fertilized  with  wood  ashes. 
On  land  never  flooded  the  soil  should  be  deep  and  moist,  but 
need  not  be  necessarily  rich.  If  land  is  subject  to  overflow 
it  must  be  well  drained.  Such  land  does  not  need  fertilizing. 
Ordinary  soil  must  be  fertilized  every  4  or  5  years.  Cultiva- 
tion is  necessary,  for  the  willow  is  very  intolerant  of  shade 
and  is  easily  crowded  out  by  weeds.  Three  or  four  hoeings 
must  be  given  the  first  year  and  two  the  second.  Later  the 
willows  will  be  thick  enough  to  shade  out  the  weeds. 

The  rods  should  be  cut  close  to  the  stool.  If  cut  below 
Ihe  ground  the  rods  will  be  brittle.  If  cut  too  far  out  from  the 
stool  the  rods  will  be  apt  to  curve  at  the  base.  Rods  to  be 


122  FARM  FORESTRY 

sold  with  the  bark  on  must  be  smooth,  tough,  flexible,  branch- 
less and  cylindrical,  and  the  color  of  the  bark  must  remain 
a  light  brown.  Usually  the  rods  are  peeled  before  being  sold. 
These  must  have  the  same  general  characteristics  and  must 
remain  white  when  peeled.  In  addition  rods  must  have  small 
pith  and  straight  grain  to  bring  the  highest  prices.  Peeling 
is  done  either  in  the  spring  when  the  sap  begins  to  flow  and 
the  bark  slips  easily,  or  the  rods  are  steamed  to  loosen  the 
bark.  The  rods  for  steam  peeling  are  cut  in  the  fall  as  soon 
as  the  leaves  have  fallen.  Where  sap  peeling  is  used  the  rods 
are  not  cut  until  March. 

After  the  rods  are  cut  they  are  drafted  or  sorted  into  4 
or  5  height  and  quality  classes.  To  do  this  they  are  placed 
upright  in  a  barrel  and  all  those  of  a  certain  length  are  placed 
together.  The  smallest  rods  usually  bring  the  highest  prices. 
The  care  taken  in  sorting  the  rods  will  often  determine  the 
price  received.  After  being  sorted  the  rods  are  tied  in  bundles 
by  grades  and  stood  in  shallow  pits  of  water  about  2,  inches 
deep.  After  standing  for  2  to  3  weeks  the  ends  of  the  rods 
become  covered  with  little  roots  and  the  rods  with  tender 
green  foliage.  In  this  condition  they  are  ready  for  peeling. 
In  peeling,  the  rods  are  first  drawn  through  an  instrument 
called  a  brake,  which  bruises  and  loosens  the  bark.  Strippers 
then  pull  off  the  loosened  bark.  The  rods  are  then  bleached 
in  the  sun  and  dried  in  the  open  air.  They  are  then  bundled 
tightly  in  bundles  about  a  foot  in  diameter  and  stored  in  a  dry, 
dark  place. 

A  fair  holt  will  average  4  tons  of  rods  to  the  acre  after 
the  second  year  for  12  years.  The  first  year  rods  are  of  little 
value.  The  second  year  the  holt  will  yield  about  half  a  crop. 
The  price  varies  with  the  kind,  size  and  quality  of  willows 
from  4  to  6  cents  a  pound.  The  cost  of  growing  a  crop  of 
willows  will  be  about  $50  an  acre.  An  acre  of  willow  will 
also  yield  about  a  ton  of  bark  which  should  be  utilized.  It 
contains  sufficient  tannin  to  be  put  to  commercial  use.  Abroad 


THE  WOODLOT  STARTED  FROM  SPROUTS         123 

the  bark  is  used  for  making  doormats,  for  bedding  cattle  and 
for  fodder.     It  sells  for  about  $15  a  ton. 


MANAGING  THE   MAPLE  SUGAR  BUSH 

In  the  northern  states  where  the  hard  or  sugar  maple  forms 
a  large  percentage  of  the  trees  in  a  woodlot,  the  making  of 
maple  sirup  or  sugar  is  an  important  spring  industry.  Many 
farm  woodlots  are  managed  especially  for  this  product. 

Sugar  maple  is  a  forest  tree  and  to  grow  well  in  a  woodlot 
requires  forest  conditions.  The  canopy  must  be  kept  intact 
so  that  the  sunlight  will  not  fall  on  the  forest  floor,  and  the 
ground  must  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  leaves  and  humus  to 
the  exclusion  of  grass  and  weeds.  The  amount  of  sap  pro- 
duced by  a  tree  is  proportional  to  the  extent  of  the  leaf  sur- 
face. In  the  woodlot  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  not  by 
a  few  trees  with  very  wide  spreading  crowns,  but  by  the  largest 
number  of  trees  consistent  with  fully  developed  crowns.  In 
the  "sugar  bush"  the  trees  should  stand  farther  apart  than  in 
the  farm  woodlot  managed  for  the  growing  of  wood  products 
alone,  in  order  that  good  crown  development  will  be  secured. 

Maple,  being  a  tolerant  tree,  would  naturally  grow  in  un- 
even aged  stands  containing  trees  of  all  sizes  and  ages.  Such 
a  stand  would  be  managed  by  the  selection  system,  the  old 
trees  being  removed  when  mature  and  their  places  being  taken 
by  younger  trees  that  have  developed  beneath  them.  Ordin- 
arily stands  of  the  sugar  maple  are  more  even  aged  owing  to 
the  trees  having  seeded  in  on  a  clearing  or  because  of  grazing 
that  has  killed  off  the  younger  trees  until  all  the  trees  are  about 
of  the  same  size.  Where  such  a  stand  is  mature  and  the 
trees  stand  far  apart,  small  maple  trees  should  be  planted 
among  the  trees  and  in  the  openings,  and  the  mature  trees 
gradually  removed.  In  young,  even  aged  stands  where  the 
trees  stand  closely  together,  they  must  be  thinned  out  every 
few  years  lightly,  so  as  to  induce  crown  development.  Cer- 


124  FARM  FORESTRY 

tain  thrifty  trees  with  good  crowns  can  be  selected  for  the 
final  stand  and  the  trees  around  them  when  they  begin  to 
crowd  can  gradually  be  thinned  out.  Heavier  thinnings  can 
be  made  than  in  the  woodlot  where  trees  with  long  boles  are 
desired.  At  40  years  of  age  there  should  be  about  100  trees 
to  the  acre  and  the  crowns  should  completely  shade  the  forest 
floor.  It  is  seldom  that  sugar  maple  forms  pure  stands.  .  It 
is  usually  found  in  mixture  with  other  trees.  Where  it  is 
desired  to  develop  a  sugar  bush  these  trees  should  gradually 
be  removed  by  utilizing  them  for  fuel  and  other  purposes  on 
the  farm  and  their  places  in  the  stand  filled  by  planting  the 
sugar  maple. 

The  sap  season  begins  the  middle  of  March  and  continues 
to  the  third  week  in  April.  The  season  usually  lasts  about  four 
weeks.  Trees  vary  in  the  amount  of  sap  they  will  yield  and 
in  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  sap.  The  amount  depends 
on  the  individual  tree,  and  on  the  character  of  the  soil  and 
the  situation.  It  fluctuates  with  night  and  day  and  with  a 
change  of  temperature.  Trees  average  about  12  gallons  of 
sap  a  year  or  about  3  pounds  of  sugar.  The  amount  may  be 
much  lower  and  individual  trees  have  been  known  to  yield 
75  gallons  of  sap  and  to  make  30^4  pounds  of  sugar  in  a  single 
year.  Sap  usually  contains  about  3  per  cent  of  sugar,  but 
it  may  run  as  high  as  10  per  cent.  Moderate  tapping  does 
not  injure  the  trees  or  affect  the  growth  or  the  quality  of  wood. 
In  tapping  a  tree  the  loose  bark  should  be  brushed  away 
so  that  pieces  will  not  fall  into  the  pail.  The  hole  is  bored 
with  a  ^-inch  or  a  ^2-inch  bit  about  an  inch  deep,  directed 
slightly  upward  so  as  to  insure  drainage.  Small  holes  are  used 
so  that  they  will  close  over  in  a  year  or  two.  The  greater 
part  of  the  sap  comes  from  the  outer  10  to  15  rings  of  the 
wood,  so  that  deep  boring  is  unnecessary.  Wooden  spouts 
are  used,  made  from  elder  or  sumach,  the  pith  being  forced 
out  with  a  stick  or  burned  out  with  a  hot  iron.  The  pails  for 
collecting  the  sap  should  be  covered  to  keep  out  bark,  dirt, 


THE  WOODLOT  STARTED  FROM  SPROUTS         125 

snow  or  rain.     Cleanliness  is  necessary  to  prevent  souring  or 
spoiling  of  the  sap. 

The  sap  is  usually  boiled  down  in  kettles  in  the  woods  or 
in  sheds  built  for  the  purpose.  As  impurities  rise  they  should 
be  skimmed  off.  When  the  boiled  down  sap  reaches  a  weight 
of  ii  pounds  to  the  gallon,  good  sirup  will  be  produced.  It 
should  be  dipped  out  and  strained  through  flannel.  It  can  be 
put  up  either  hot  or  cold.  It  is  believed  by  many  better  to  can 
it  cold  and  as  soon  as  possible.  For  making  sugar  the  sap 
should  be  boiled  down  until  it  begins  to  "sugar  off."  Old- 
fashioned  methods  to  determine  this  point  are  by  pouring  the 
sirup  on  snow  or  by  dipping  in  it  a  twig  bent  into  a  loop. 
If  it  becomes  waxy  on  the  snow  or  if  it  forms  an  elastic  film 
on  the  loop,  the  sirup  has  boiled  enough.  It  is  then  poured 
into  moulds  to  harden.  It  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  cellar 
or  storeroom. 


CHAPTER  XII 
PROTECTION  OF  THE  WOODLOT 

A  WOODLOT  must  be  protected  from  its  enemies  if  it  is 
to  be  successful.  Trees  are  attacked  by  disease  and  insects 
the  same  as  other  forms  of  plant  life,  and  they  are  subject 
to  injury  from  fire, 'storm,  animals,  and  the  acts  of  man. 

Tree  Diseases. — There  are  many  kinds  of  diseases  to 
which  trees  are  subject.  The  most  common  of  them  are  caused 
by  fungi.  These  are  low  forms  of  plant  life  that  cannot  man- 
ufacture food,  being  without  chlorophyll,  and  so  live  on  other 
plant  life.  They  live  on  the  wood  and  other  parts  of  a  tree, 
consuming  the  woody  tissue  and  causing  what  is  known  as  rot. 
The  fungous  disease  is  spread  by  spores  that  are  very  light 
and  small  and  are  carried  through  the  air.  Falling  on  the 
exposed  surface  of  wood  the  spores  will  begin  to  grow,  forc- 
ing their  way  into  the  tree  and  branching  out  in  all  directions 
through  the  woody  tissue.  After  the  fungous  disease  is  well 
established  in  the  tree  it  produces  a  fruiting  body  which  is 
often  in  the  shape  of  a  shelf-like  bracket  or  of  a  toadstool. 
Mushrooms  and  puffballs  are  the  fruiting  bodies  of  fungi. 
The  fruiting  bodies  vary  in  the  different  kinds  of  fungi  from 
a  foot  or  more  across  to  those  barely  visible.  They  vary  in 
color  also  from  colorless  to  black  or  red,  but  never  green. 
From  these  fruiting  bodies  the  spores  are  scattered  by  the 
wind. 

As  long  as  the  bark  on  a  tree  is  intact  it  will  protect  the 
tree  from  most  kinds  of  fungi  and  decay.  The  spores  may 
enter  a  tree  through  a  broken  limb  and  work  down  through 
the  body  of  the  tree,  or  they  may  enter  through  an  injured 

126 


Fruiting  bodies  of  rot  producing  fungi  on  the  stump  of  an  oak  tree. 


Photo  by  A.  S.  Rhodes. 

Section  across  the  butt  of  a  chestnut  tree,  showing  how  decay  has  entered 
the  tree  through  a  fire  scar. 


PROTECTION  OF  THE  WOODLOT  12/ 

root.  Usually  rot  starts  in  a  tree  as  the  result  of  the  breaking 
of  the  bark  on  the  trunk  by  grazing  animals,  by  accident  or 
because  the  inner  living  bark  has  been  killed  by  fire  or  other 
causes. 

While  most  fungi  grow  on  the  stem  and  limbs  of  trees 
some  attack  the  leaves,  others  the  living  bark  and  others  the 
roots.  Some  fungi  attack  only  the  heartwood,  in  which  case 
the  trunk  may  become  hollow.  Since  the  heartwood  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  life  process  of  the  tree,  the  wood  being 
dead,  heart  rot  does  not  often  kill  a  tree.  Trees  are  often 
seen  growing  vigorously  with  a  hollow  trunk.  Heart  rot  de- 
stroys the  value  of  the  tree  for  lumber  or  other  useful  pur- 
pose and  so  weakens  the  tree  that  it  is  liable  to  be  broken  off 
by  a  heavy  wind.  Some  fungi  attack  the  sapwood  and  the 
cambium,  the  living  layer  of  the  tree.  These  fungi  are  most 
dangerous  to  the  life  of  trees  and  soon  bring  about  their 
death.  The  chestnut  bark  disease,  which  threatens  the  destruc- 
tion of  all  chestnut  trees,  is  of  this  character.  It  enters  the 
bark  through  a  wound  or  even  through  the  lenticles  of  the 
bark.  It  spreads  out  and  develops  in  the  cambium  layer, 
forming  a  spot  that  gradually  grows  larger  and  larger  until 
the  tree  is  girdled  and  killed.  From  the  brown  patches  which 
it  forms  on  the  surface  of  the  bark  the  spores  are  spread. 
The  recently  imported  wrhite  pine  blister  rust  is  of  much  the 
same  character. 

Little  can  be  done  when  trees  are  attacked  by  fungi, 
especially  in  a  large  woodlot.  Because  the  disease  is  in- 
side the  bark,  spraying  will  have  no  effect  as  it  will  not 
reach  the  disease.  Injections  of  so-called  remedies,  or  boring 
holes  in  a  tree  and  filling  with  medicine  or  chemicals  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  will  be  of  little  or  no  value.  The  bark  on  trees 
in  the  woodlot  should  be  kept  intact.  Wounds  caused  by 
pruning  off  branches  or  otherwise  should  be  painted  with  a 
good  paint  or  tar  to  prevent  the  spores  or  seeds  of  the  fungi 
entering  the  wood.  Fire  that  kills  the  inner  bark  at  the  base 


128  FA  KM  FORESTRY 

of  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  through  the  woodlot 
and  grazing  animals  should  be  excluded.  Trees  and  limbs 
attacked  by  the  chestnut  bark  disease  or  other  diseases  should 
be  cut  and  the  bark  removed  and  burned.  This  will  often 
prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease  to  other  portions  of  the 
tree  or  to  other  trees.  Healthy,  vigorously  growing  trees  are 
less  apt  to  be  attacked  by  rot  because  new  woocl  closes  over 
wounds  quickly.  Anything  that  tends  to  induce  health  and 
vigor  in  the  trees  will  help  to  prevent  decay. 

Insects. — Insects  are  another  cause  of  damage  and  often 
of  great  loss  to  the  woodlot.  Every  tree  has  its  insect  enemies 
that  live  and  prey  on  it  every  year.  Ordinarily  they  do  but 
little  damage.  It  is  only  when  an  insect  becomes  very  numer- 
ous and  it  begins  to  do  considerable  damage  that  our  attention 
is  called  to  it.  The  destruction  of  birds  is  said  to  have  been 
one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  increase  in  insect  pests  in  recent 
years.  So  numerous  have  the  insect  pests  of  trees  become  in 
some  regions  that  trees  can  be  grown  only  by  constantly  right- 
ing their  insect  enemies,  by  spraying  the  leaves  with  poison, 
destroying  the  eggs  of  insects,  burning  their  nests,  and  in 
other  ways. 

Insects  kill  trees  by  defoliating  them  or  eating  the  leaves, 
by  sucking  the  juices  through  the  leaves  or  bark,  or  by  gird- 
ling the  inner  living  bark.  Some  insects  live  only  in  the  dead 
wood  or  heartwood  of  a  tree  or  only  on  dead  trees,  while 
others  attack  only  living  trees.  Some  live  only  on  one  tree 
or  a  few  trees,  while  others  live  on  many  kinds. 

It  is  only  by  becoming  acquainted  with  the  life  history 
of  insects  that  they  can  be  combated  intelligently  and  success- 
fully. Insects  that  spend  the  winter  in  webs  in  the  trees  like 
the  brown  tail  moth  or  fall  web  worm  can  be  destroyed  by 
cutting  off  the  webs  and  burning  them  or  by  burning  the  webs 
with  a  long-handled  torch.  Each  web  of  the  brown  tail 
moth  will  contain  from  500  to  900  caterpillars.  The  gipsy 
moth  lays  its  eggs  in  yellowish  clusters  in  crevices  in  the  bark, 


PROTECTION  OF  THE  WOODLOT  129 

along  fences  or  in  other  places.  These  egg  masses  each 
containing  400  to  50x3  eggs  can  be  destroyed  by  wetting  them 
with  creosote.  Both  of  these  insects  have  done  great  damage 
to  the  woodlots  in  New  England  and  are  likely  to  spread. 
The  white  pine  weevil  which  attacks  the  tip  shoots  of  the 
white  pine  trees,  especially  the  young  trees  in  plantations,  can 
be  killed  by  cutting  off  the  infested  leaders  in  the  late  summer 
and  burning  them.  The  weevil  lays  its  eggs  on  the  leader  and 
the  young  develop  in  the  growing  twig.  Leaders  that  are 
attacked  begin  to  change  color  in  the  late  summer.  They 
should  be  cut  at  once  and  destroyed  before  the  weevils  escape. 
Caterpillars  can  be  prevented  from  climbing  trees  by  binding 
a  band  of  sticky  fly  paper  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  Insects 
that  eat  the  leaves  of  trees  can  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the 
leaves  with  a  poison  solution,  such  as  10  pounds  of  arsenate 
of  lead  dissolved  in  100  gallons  of  water.  Insects  that  suck 
the  juices  from  leaves  and  bark  can  be  killed  by  a  contact 
poison  which  will  smother  them,  such  as  kerosene  emulsion, 
soap  and  water,  tobacco  extract,  or  lime  and  sulphur  wash. 
When  trees  become  badly  infested  with  insects  that  have  bored 
beneath  the  bark,  the  trees  should  be  cut  and  the  bark  burned. 
Boring  insects  can  be  cut  out  with  a  knife  where  an  especially 
valuable  tree  is  attacked,  or  carbon  bisulphide  can  be  injected 
into  the  burrow  and  the  opening  immediately  plugged  with 
putty  or  soap. 

Dead  trees  and  rotting  branches  and  stumps  are  often  the 
breeding  places  of  insects  that  later  may  attack  living  trees. 
The  woodlot  should  be  kept  free  of  such  material  by  utilizing 
it  for  cordwood.  The  tops  of  trees  cut  should  be  utilized 
in  this  way  or  piled  and  burned.  Many  methods  for  combat- 
ing insects  can  be  carried  out  only  on  the  small  woodlot. 
They  would  not  be  practical  with  large  forest  areas.  Where 
insects  are  destroying  large  portions  of  forests  the  only  prac- 
tical remedy  is  to  cut  all  the  trees  in  the  infested  area. 

It   is   sometimes  possible   to   combat   an   insect   attack  by 


130  FARM  FORESTRY 

cutting  from  the  woodlot  the  trees  on  which  the  particular 
insect  feeds  and  encouraging  the  more  resistant  kinds.  In 
starting  a  woodlot  by  planting  only  those  trees  should  be  used 
that  are  not  subject  to  insect  attacks.  It  is  impossible  to  grow 
the  black  locust  in  many  parts  of  its  range  because  of  the 
attacks  of  the  locust  borer  that  riddles  the  wood  of  the  trees. 
It  is  said  that  this  insect  lives  on  the  pollen  of  the  goldenrod 
and  that  where  this  is  destroyed  locust  trees  can  be  grown. 
There  is  no  practical  method  of  combating  many  kinds  of 
insects. 

Fire. — Fire  is  one  of  the  worst  enemies  of  the  woodlot. 
It  not  only  injures  large  trees  but  it  destroys  the  young  trees 
and  seedlings  on  which  the  future  of  the  woodlot  depends, 
and  also  destroys  the  favorable  conditions  of  the  forest  floor 
and  soil.  It  is  often  thought  that  a  surface  fire  passing  through 
a  woodlot  consuming  the  fallen  leaves  does  scarcely  any  dam- 
age to  the  larger  trees.  This  is  because  the  crowns  of  the 
trees  are  elevated  high  above  the  fire  and  the  bark  on  old 
trees  is  usually  thick.  A  surface  fire  may  be  hot  enough  to 
scorch  and  kill  the  living  cambium  layer  lying  just  beneath 
the  bark  without  the  tree  showing  scarcely  any  outward  evi- 
dence of  injury.  The  damage  done  to  trees  after  a  fire  often 
does  not  become  evident  for  many  years.  When  the  cambium 
layer  is  killed  by  being  scorched,  growth  will  cease  over  that 
portion  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  decay  of  the  wood  will 
soon  set  in.  The  cause  of  so  many  large  trees  being  rotten  at 
the  base  is  usually  surface  fires  that  have  killed  the  cambium 
layer.  Fungi  gaining  entrance  through  the  dead  bark  spread 
out  in  the  wood  often  rotting  the  heartwood  for  long  dis- 
tances. When  such  trees  are  cut  they  must  be  butted  off 
many  feet  to  get  above  the  decay.  On  level  land  trees  are 
injured  most  from  a  surface  fire  on  the  leeward  side  or  the 
side  away  from  the  direction  from  which  the  fire  comes. 
The  direction  in  which  a  fire  burned  and  usually  the  place 
where  the  fire  started  can  often  be  determined  by  this  means. 


The  effect  of  fire  and  wind  on  a  stand  of  western1  Htyfe  pine; 

are  all  dead.     The  humus  and  the  roots  of  the  trees  have  been 
burned,  causing  the  trees  to  be  blown  over  by  the  wind. 


PKOTECTION  OF  THE  WOODLOT  131 

The  injury  to  the  trees  by  surface  fires  can  be  shown  imme- 
diately after  the  fire  by  removing  the  outer  bark.  If  the  inner 
bark  looks  brown  or  scorched  the  fire  has  killed  the  cambium 
or  growing  layer  at  that  point.  A  fire  in  a  woodlot  always 
does  great  damage  to  the  surface  roots  of  trees. 

It  is  sometimes  held  that  a  fire  is  an  advantage  to  a  young 
stand  of  growing  timber,  in  that  it  will  kill  a  few  of  the  trees 
and  the  rest  will  grow  all  the  faster  because  of  the  greater 
room  in  which  to  spread  their  crowns.  A  thinning  is  often 
needed  in  a  thick  stand  of  young  trees,  but  fire  does  not  exer- 
cise an  intelligent  choice  as  to  the  trees  to  be  removed.  The 
trees  killed  are  those  most  susceptible  to  damage  by  fire,  as 
those  with  thin  bark  or  that  contain  a  great  amount  of  water. 
It  may  happen  that  these  trees  are  of  the  better  kinds  and  that 
those  that  will  withstand  fire  the  best  are  the  poorest  kinds 
of  trees  in  the  woodlot.  Fire  passing  through  the  woodlot 
will  often  in  this  way  bring  about  a  change  in  the  species 
and  cause  the  woodlot  to  deteriorate  in  character. 

It  is  in  the  destruction  of  the  young  seedlings  and  saplings 
and  of  the  seeds  lying  in  the  humus  ready  to  germinate  that 
the  greatest  injury  is  done  to  the  farm  woodlot.  The  woodlot 
can  get  along  without  the  older  trees.  It  is  natural  for  them 
finally  through  old  age  or  disease  to  die  and  fall  to  the  ground. 
But  a  woodlot  cannot  get  along  without  the  younger  trees. 
As  has  been  said,  these  are  the  children  of  the  woodlot,  and 
if  they  are  continually  killed  off  by  fire  or  other  causes  there 
can  be  no  future  to  the  life  of  the  woodlot. 

Fire  passing  repeatedly  over  the  ground  destroys  the  humus 
and  breaks  down  the  crumbly  character  of  the  soil,  making  it 
hard,  much  like  a  pavement.  This  prevents  the  circulation 
of  the  air  in  the  soil,  which  is  necessary  for  root  develop- 
ment. It  tends  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  moisture,  the  water 
running  over  the  surface  instead  of  sinking  into  the  ground. 
It  prevents  the  new  tender  roots  that  start  from  germinating 
seeds  from  entering  the  soil,  and  so  prevents  the  reproduction 


132  FARM  FORESTRY 

of  the  trees.  The  destruction  of  the  humus  or  the  decayed 
leaves  and  twigs  lessens  the  moisture  holding  capacity  of  the 
soil.  Such  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  the  growth  of 
trees,  but  encourage  the  growth  of  weeds. 

Protecting  the  Woodlot  from  Fire. — Where  woodlots  are 
portions  of  larger  forest  areas  some  means  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  fires  spreading  to  them.  Woodlots  that  are  isolated, 
being  surrounded  by  cultivated  fields,  are  not  usually  subject 
to  fires.  If  fire  starts  it  is  due  to  carelessness  in  most  cases. 
The  watchfulness  of  the  owner  is  the  surest  safeguard  against 
fires.  If  a  fire  can  be  discovered  early  before  it  has  become  of 
large  size  it  usually  can  be  extinguished  easily.  Where  it  is 
possible  to  do  so  there  is  no  better  means  of  protecting  a 
woodlot  than  to  run  a  few  furrows  around  it  with  a  plow. 
This  will  stop  an  ordinary,  slowly  moving  surface  fire.  It 
also  gives  a  base  from  which  to  back  fire  against  a  rapidly 
approaching  fire.  In  back  firing,  a  fire  is  lighted  along  a  pre- 
pared line,  path  or  road  running  at  right  angles  across  an  ap- 
proaching fire,  and  is  allowed  to  burn  back  against  the  fire, 
consuming  the  inflammable  material.  This  is  a  most  effective 
means  of  combating  a  rapidly  moving  and  hot  fire.  Fire  lanes 
are  sometimes  made  by  turning  furrows  several  yards  or  rods 
apart  and  burning  off  the  inflammable  material  between.  Such 
fire  lanes  are  comparatively  inexpensive  and  are  very  effective. 
They  can  be  run  along  railroads  and  the  material  between 
the  tracks  and  fire  lane  burned.  They  can  be  constructed 
in  the  same  way  along  a  highway  where  there  is  danger  of  fire 
being  started  accidentally.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  plow  fire 
lines  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  this  case  lines  can 
be  raked  or  hoed  clear  of  all  inflammable  material  such  as 
leaves,  twigs,  weeds  and  grass,  and  all  branches  and  fallen 
trees  removed.  Regular  roads  and  existing  logging  roads, 
trails  and  streams  can  also  be  utilized  as  fire  lines. 

Woodlots  can  be  divided  by  fire  lines  into  blocks.  If  fire 
starts  in  one  block  the  lines  will  prevent  it  spreading  to  other 


PROTECTION  OF  THE  WOODLOT  133 

portions.  Farmers  often  delay  too  long  making  provision  for 
preventing  fire.  A  fire  line  ceases  to  be  a  fire  line  when  it 
becomes  covered  with  dry  leaves  and  other  material.  Even  in 
that  condition  they  will  serve,  however,  as  trails  along  which 
men  can  move  in  fighting  a  fire.  Experienced  men  often  will 
not  enter  the  woods  to  fight  fire  unless  along  a  trail  that 
will  also  lead  them  out  of  the  woods  in  case  of  danger.  Lines 
should  be  opened  up  through  large  woods  for  this  purpose. 
The  ground  in  a  woodlot  should  be  kept  clear  of  all  inflam- 
mable material.  Dead  tops  and  fallen  limbs  as  well  as  the 
slash  after  logging  should  be  worked  up  into  cordwood  and 
the  rest  piled  and  burned. 

A  surface  fire  passing  through  a  woodlot  often  can  be 
beaten  out  by  the  use  of  wet  sacks  or  branches  of  trees. 
Where  sand  or  dirt  can  be  had  it  can  be  thrown  from  a  shovel 
on  a  fire  with  good  effect.  Water  where  it  can  be  obtained 
is.  probably  the  best  means  of  fighting  fires  in  the  woodlot. 
A  pail  of  water  and  an  ordinary  force  pump  will  put  out 
many  feet  of  fire  or  lay  it  so  low  that  it  can  easily  be  beaten 
out.  In  some  regions  where  woodlots  are  of  value  fire  ex- 
tinguishers are  used  and  work  well.  In  thickly  settled  regions 
fire  engines  and  trucks  equipped  with  fire  fighting  tools  are 
held  in  readiness  to  go  to  woodlot  fires  and  extinguish  them. 

Where  fire  burns  down  below  the  surface  and  runs  in  dry 
humus  where  it  has  accumulated  in  thick  layers,  trenches  must 
be  dug  down  to  the  mineral  soil  around  the  fire  to  keep  it 
from  spreading.  Such  a  fire  is  called  a  ground  fire.  It  burns 
slowly  destroying  the  humus  and  soil  and  causing  great  dam- 
age by  burning  ihe  roots  of  trees  causing  them  to  fall  over 
in  the  first  wind. 

The  time  to  fight  a  large  fire  is  at  night  when  the  dew 
has  dampened  the  humus  and  foliage  and  the  fire  burns  low 
and  slowly.  Under  the  drying  and  warming  action  of  the 
sun  the  woods  become  dry  and  wind  is  apt  to  rise  or  change 
suddenly.  A  fire  in  the  daytime  usually  burns  too  hot  and 


134  FAEM  FORESTRY 

too  fast  to  be  attacked  by  beating  it  out.  A  fire  in  a  small 
woodlot  can  usually  be  stopped  by  raking  the  leaves  and  other 
dead  material  from  in  front  of  the  fire  or  by  beating  out  the 
flames. 

Grazing. — In  a  mature,  even  aged  woodlot  where  the  trees 
are  large  and  the  canopy  is  far  removed  from  the  heads  of 
cattle  and  where  reproduction  of  the  trees  is  not  looked  ~for 
or  desired,  the  grazing  of  a  few  head  of  cattle  can  do  but 
little  immediate  harm  to  the  standing  trees.  It  is  overgrazing 
that  does  harm.  But  in  a  recently  established  forest  planting, 
or  in  a  young  growing  woodlot,  or  in  the  ordinary  farm  wood- 
lot  composed  of  trees  of  all  sizes  and  ages,  or  where  repro- 
duction of  the  trees  in  the  woodlot  is  desired,  grazing  must 
be  excluded. 

Animals  do  damage  in  several  ways  when  grazing  in  a 
woodlot.  The  result  of  their  action  is  much  similar  to  that 
produced  by  fire.  The  young  seedlings  and  saplings  are  eaten 
and  destroyed,  the  ground  is  packed  hard  by  the  constant 
trampling  of  the  cattle,  making  it  impervious  to  water;  the 
surface  roots  of  trees  are  exposed  and  injured,  and  the  bark 
on  larger  trees  is  rubbed  off  or  gnawed  exposing  the  wood  to 
decay.  Different  kinds  of  animals  affect  the  woodlot  dif- 
ferently. Sheep  cut  into  the  soil  with  their  sharp  hoofs, 
pulverizing  it  and  injuring  the  surface  roots  of  the  trees  and 
seedlings.  Horses  and  cattle  destroy  large  numbers  of  young 
trees  by  trampling.  Damage  is  done  to  the  trees  by  browsing 
on  the  young  growth,  by  biting  off  buds,  leaves  and  shoots,  and 
by  gnawing  and  rubbing  off  the  bark.  Horses  reach  higher 
and  are  fonder  of  leaves  than  cattle,  and  because  of  their  iron 
shoes  they  do  greater  damage.  Sheep  have  their  heads  low, 
but  they  eat  close  and  are  exceedingly  harmful  to  the  wood- 
lot.  Goats  prefer  the  leaves  and  bark  of  trees  to  other  forage. 
They  should  never  be  allowed  in  the  woodlot.  Goats  and  sheep 
are  often  used  to  clean  up  brush  land  because  of  the  damage 
they  do  to  young  trees  and  sprouts.  From  3  to  5  goats  to 


PROTECTION  OF  THE  WOODLOT  135 

the  acre  will  usually  clear  out  all  the  tree  growth  in  a  single 
season.  Hogs  root  up  the  soil  and  eat  the  young  succulent 
roots  of  trees.  They  are  sometimes  driven  into  the  woodlot 
to  expose  the  mineral  soil  so  that  the  seed  from  the  trees  will 
germinate  better. 

There  is  much  truth  in  the  old  saying  that  it  is  impossible 
to  grow  trees  and  animals  on  the  same  ground.  Where  it  is 
necessary  to  run  cattle  in  the  woodlot  for  protection  from  the 
hot  sun  in  summer  and  from  the  cold  winds  of  winter,  the 
woodlot  should  be  divided,  a  portion  being  fenced  off  and 
devoted  to  this  purpose  and  the  rest  of  the  woodlot  used  for 
growing  trees. 

Storms. — Considerable  damage  is  done  to  trees  in  the 
woodlot  by  storms  causing  windfall  and  breakage.  Trees  in 
the  woodlot  protect  each  other  from  the  wind.  Standing 
closely  together,  the  crowns  prevent  the  wind  blowing  the 
trees  over  so  far  that  they  will  be  uprooted  or  broken  off. 
Great  care  must  be  used  in  thinning  a  woodlot  not  to  suddenly 
remove  so  many  trees  in  one  spot  that  the  tree  crowns  will 
be  separated  from  one  another  so  far  that  windfall  or  breakage 
will  result.  Windfall  is  especially  likely  to  occur  in  moist 
situations,  where  the  trees  naturally  grow  shallow  root  sys- 
tems. It  is  well  to  maintain  a  mantle  or  protecting  hedge 
to  the  woodlot  to  keep  the  wind  from  getting  in  under  the 
trees.  Trees  on  the  outer  edges  of  the  woodlot  should  be 
allowed  to  grow  branches  low  down  on  the  trunks,  and  shrubs 
and  smaller  trees  should  be  encouraged  to  grow.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  open  up  the  edge  of  a  woodlot  by  pruning  up  the  trees 
and  by  removing  the  young  growth  and  shrubs  found.  Such 
a  protective  mantle  'prevents  the  cold  winds  of  winter  from 
injuring  the  trees  by  freezing  and  cracking  open  the  trunks. 
It  prevents  the  hot  winds  of  summer  from  drying  up  the  soil 
under  the  trees  and  also  helps  to  prevent  windfall  and 
breakage. 

The  Owner. — Probably  the  worst  enemy  of  the  woodlot 


136  FARM  FORESTRY 

is  the  owner  himself.  By  his  lack  of  judgment  as  to  the  trees 
to  cut  for  fuel,  always  selecting  the  most  vigorously  growing 
and  best  formed  trees  and  leaving  the  poor  ones,  the  woodlot 
becomes  filled  with  old,  crooked  and  misshapen  trees.  By 
giving  no  thought  to  the  trees  that  start  to  grow  in  the  space 
left  by  the  removal  of  a  tree,  allowing  nature  to  fill  in  the 
opening  with  any  tree  that  happens  to  come  up,  the  woodlot 
often  becomes  filled  with  weed  trees  that  have  little  use  on  the 
farm.  Only  by  the  removal  of  the  weed  trees  and  by  favor- 
ing and  planting  trees  of  good  species  can  an  owner  secure 
trees  in  the  woodlot  that  will  be  of  use.  Many  woodlots  after 
years  of  cutting  are  in  a  culled  condition,  all  the  valuable 
species  having  been  removed.  The  kinds  of  trees  that  could 
not  be  sold  were  left  to  sow  the  seed  for  the  future  woodlot. 
Many  woodlots  formerly  filled  with  useful  and  valuable  trees 
now  contain  only  inferior  kinds  of  trees.  The  surest  way 
to  secure  valuable  trees  in  the  woodlot  is  to  plant  them  when- 
ever a  tree  is  removed. 

By  not  growing  his  trees  closely  enough  together  the 
trees  become  limby  and  grow  short  trunks.  By  not  thinning 
out  the  trees  as  they  gradually  grow  larger  he  permits  the 
trees  to  expend  most  of  their  energy  in  fighting  neighboring 
trees  rather  than  in  rapid  height  and  diameter  growth.  By  giv- 
ing to  each  tree  the  amount  of  light  and  space  it  needs  by 
frequent  and  light  thinnings,  removing  the  weaker  and  in- 
ferior species  the  owner  can  greatly  increase  the  annual  yield 
of  the  woodlot.  Too  many  farmers  leave  the  growing  of 
their  trees  to  nature.  Nature's  methods  are  usually  not  profit- 
able and  in  the  woodlot  she  will  often  grow  but  one-fourth 
or  less  of  the  amount  of  wood  product  that  can  be  grown  by 
proper  care  and  attention.  By  not  making  provision  for  trees 
to  grow  up  to  take  the  place  of  those  removed,  breaks  occur 
in  the  canopy  causing  a  loss  in  yield.  By  not  encouraging  the 
fastest  growing  species  that  will  serve  his  purpose,  he  pro- 
duces annually  but  a  small  part  of  the  wood  product  he  might 


Grazing  is  injurious  to  the  trees  in  the  woodlot.     Dead  limbs  in  the 
tops  of  the  trees  show  lack  of  vigor. 


A  protective  mantle  to  the  woodlot  protects  the  trees  from  cold  and 

dry  wind. 


PROTECTION  OF  THE  WOODLOT  137 

obtain.  By  not  protecting  the  woodlot  from  fire  and  grazing 
he  is  destroying  the  future  of  the  woodlot  and  injuring  the 
present  stand  of  trees.  Insects  and  fungi,  because  of  his 
neglect,  use  up  a  large  percentage  of  the  product. 

As  has  been  said,  a  woodlot  will  respond  to  good  treatment 
and  the  owner  can  by  giving  a  little  attention  to  the  growing 
trees,  and  protecting  them  from  their  enemies,  make  a  wood- 
lot  a  source  of  income  as  well  as  have  it  furnish  the  farm  with 
all  the  wood  desired. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
WOODLOT  MANAGEMENT 

Conception  of  the  Woodlot  as  Forest  Capital. — The  trees 
in  the  woodlot  can  be  considered  as  forest  capital  from  which 
an  income  is  to  be  derived  or  the  same  as  money  in  the  bank 
at  interest.  The  amount  of  wood  that  is  laid  on  the  trees 
in  a  year,  the  annual  growth,  is  the  interest  on  the  forest 
capital.  If  the  amount  of  wood  produced  by  each  tree  every 
year  is  large,  owing  to  rapid  growth,  a  high  rate  of  interest 
will  be  earned  by  the  woodlot. 

Unless  the  trees  in  the  woodlot  are  fast  growing  species 
of  trees  and  unless  they  are  given  the  proper  amount  of  space 
for  their  best  and  most  rapid  development  by  means  of  thin- 
nings, a  low  rate  of  interest  must  be  expected.  Like  any  other 
business,  the  returns  from  the  woodlot  will  depend  on  the  kind 
and  amount  of  capital  in  the  business,  and  also  on  how  that 
capital  is  handled. 

The  Amount  of  Timber  to  Remove  Annually  from  the 
Woodlot, — It  is  important  to  know  the  amount  of  timber  that 
can  be  removed  annually  from  the  woodlot  without  detriment 
to  the  forest  capital.  It  is  a  common  saying  that  a  farmer 
cannot  use  his  woodlot  and  have  it  too.  This  is  because  as 
soon  as  he  begins  cutting  in  the  woodlot  it  is  not  many  years 
before  the  woodlot  is  in  a  wornout  condition,  the  trees  stand- 
ing far  apart  and  grass  and  weeds  covering  the  forest  floor. 
This  results  from  not  knowing  the  amount  that  can  safely  be 
removed  each  year.  In  this  case  instead  of  cutting  the  interest 
only,  the  owner  has  been  cutting  into  the  forest  capital.  The 
amount  that  can  safely  be  cut  from  the  woodlot  each  year 

138 


This  kind  of  woodlot  can  yield  but  a  small  annual  income. 


WOODLOT  MANAGEMENT  139 

is  the  amount  that  grows  each  year  or  the  interest  earned  by 
the  forest  capital.  If  more  is  cut  the  woodlot  will  soon  run 
out. 

A  cord  per  acre  per  annum  is  an  old  measure  of  the 
growth  of  the  ordinary  woodlot.  There  are,  however,  few 
woodlots  that  grow  at  that  rate.  Most  of  them  produce  but 
half  a  cord  or  less  per  acre  every  year.  In  cutting  it  will 
not  be  safe  to  figure  on  a  high  yield.  Raising  the  yield  is 
the  problem  of  the  farm  woodlot.  With  a  well  stocked  stand 
of  fast  growing  trees  that  are  given  the  proper  room  for  their 
best  growth  by  means  of  thinnings,  a  cord  per  annum  and 
more  should  be  produced.  The  yield  should  be  placed  at  a 
certain  amount  and  if  the  owner  finds  that  after  cutting  a 
few  years  the  woodlot  is  becoming  thin,  a  less  amount  should 
be  removed  annually.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  woodlot  is 
becoming  overstocked  with  large  trees,  a  larger  amount  can 
safely  be  removed. 

Size  of  the  Woodlot. — Whether  a  woodlot  will  supply  a 
farm  with  all  the  wood  products  needed  will  depend  primarily 
on  the  size  of  the  woodlot.  It  is  often  said  that  one-eighth 
of  the  farm  should  be  in  a  woodlot  and  that  area  should 
supply  the  farm  for  all  time  with  all  wood  products  needed, 
and  also  furnish  some  material  for  sale.  The  area  that  should 
be  in  farm  woodlot,  however,  is  not  definite.  The  annual  in- 
come from  an  acre  of  wooded  land  will  depend  on  the  species, 
whether  it  has  slow  or  fast  growth ;  on  the  soil,  whether  it  is 
suited  to  the  tree  grown;  on  the  moisture  content  of  the 
soil,  whether  it  is  wet  or  dry;  on  the  aspect  or  exposure  to 
winds  or  storms,  and  on  the  topography,  whether  the  ground 
is  level  or  a  steep  slope,  and  on  which  way  it  faces.  All  these 
factors  and  others  will  affect  the  growth  of  trees.  Even  the 
same  tree  will  not  grow  at  the  same  rate  in  the  same  region 
if  the  character  of  the  soil  varies  or  the  moisture  in  the  soil 
differs  in  amount.  The  annual  growth  must  be  determined 
for  each  particular  woodlot  and  the  size  figured  accordingly. 


140  FARM  FORESTRY 

If  the  woodlot  is  found  to  be  too  small  to  supply  the  farm 
with  all  wood  products  needed  its  boundaries  should  be  ex- 
tended by  planting  trees,  or  wood  products  should  be  pur- 
chased. 

Regulating  the  Cuttings  in  the  Woodlot  so  as  to  Secure 
an  Equal  Annual  Yield. — One  of  the  objects  of  woodlot 
management  is  to  so  arrange  or  regulate  the  cuttings  that 
an  equal  amount  of  wood  can  be  removed  from  the  woodlot 
year  after  year  or  periodically  without  lessening  the  forest 
capital.  In  other  words,  to  put  the  woodlot  on  a  business  basis 
with  a  sustained  annual  yield. 

One  of  the  means  of  accomplishing  this  object  in  a  wood- 
lot  where  the  stand  of  timber  is  fairly  uniform  throughout 
is  by  the  area  method.  This  consists  in  dividing  the  woodlot 
into  as  many  equal  areas  as  the  trees  are  years  old  when 
mature  and  cutting  one  part  each  year.  The  age  at  which  the 
trees  are  cut  is  known  as  the  rotation.  The  rotation  will  vary 
with  the  product  desired,  whether  it  be  sawlogs,  poles,  ties, 
posts  or  cordwood.  Even  with  the  same  product  the  age  at 
which  the  trees  will  be  large  enough  to  cut  for  a  certain 
product  will  vary  with  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  trees.  The 
faster  the  trees  grow  the  lower  the  rotation  can  be  made. 

The  age  at  which  the  trees  are  to  be  cut  having  been 
established,  the  woodlot  is  divided  into  that  number  of  equal 
parts  and  the  timber  on  one  of  them  is  cut  each  yean  As 
soon  as  the  trees  have  been  cut  reproduction  is  established 
by  seedlings  or  from  sprouts  and  a  new  stand  of  timber 
started.  In  this  way  by  cutting  one  area  a  year  the  entire 
woodlot  is  finally  cut  over  and  the  cut-over  areas  reproduced. 
At  the  end  of  the  rotation  or  the  time  it  takes  to  cut  through 
the  woodlot,  the  trees  on  the  first  area  cut  will  be  old  enough 
and  large  enough  to  harvest.  The  owner  starts  and  cuts 
through  the  woodlot  again.  Each  year  the  timber  on  one  area 
becomes  mature  and  is  cut  and  reproduction  is  established.* 

*  The  rotation  can  also  be  divided  into  periods  of  5  or   10  years 


WOODLOT  MANAGEMENT  141 

In  this  way  the  woodlot  is  placed  on  a  financial  basis  the 
same  as  any  other  business.  It  produces  a  known  income  every 
year.  The  value  of  the  woodlot  can  be  figured  on  a  basis  of 
the  income. 

This  represents  the  method  of  management  of  forests  in 
countries  where  forestry  has  been  practiced  many  years.  It 
gives  an  idea  of  what  forestry  really  is,  a  business  of  growing 
crops  of  trees.  There  are  many  other  methods  of  regulating 
the  annual  cut  in  woodlots  or  forests  to  secure  a  sustained 
yield.  These  can  be  found  described  in  books  relating  to 
general  forestry. 

TAXATION     OF     WOODLOTS 

Woodlots  in  most  states  are  subject  to  the  general  property 
tax.  Each  year  the  assessors  appraise  the  value  of  the  trees 
together  with  the  land,  and  the  owner  pays  the  tax  annually 
on  -this  valuation.  No  one  objects  to  paying  a  just  tax  on 
property,  but  a  tax  out  of  proportion  to  the  value  of  the 
property  is  unjust.  A  mature  stand  of  timber  that  is  being 
held  for  a  rise  in  the  value  of  stumpage  is  probably  justly 
taxed  by  this  system.  But  often  the  tax  on  such  timber  has 
been  made  a  burden.  Overtaxation  on  mature  timber  has 
been  common  in  many  regions,  the  assessors  figuring  to  get 
all  out  of  the  timber  possible  before  it  is  cut.  This  has  been 
a  chief  cause  of  the  slashing  of  many  of  our  forests. 

But  a  growing  stand  of  timber,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  the 
nature  of  a  crop  and  should  pay  a  tax  only  when  the  crop 
is  harvested,  and  not  year  after  year  while  the  crop  is  growing 
and  producing  no  revenue.  When  the  crop  brings  in  an 
income  then  the  tax  should  be  collected.  The  land  should  pay 

each  and  the  woodlot  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  periods 
in  the  rotation.  Then  the  timber  on  one  part  would  be  cut  during 
each  period  and  reproduction  established.  When  the  woodlot  is  cut 
through  the  timber  on  the  first  part  cut  would  be  large  enough  to 
harvest. 


142  FAEM  FORESTRY 

its  just  tax  each  year  on  the  basis  of  its  productive  capacity 
the  same  as  plowland,  and  the  timber  should  pay  its  tax  when 
cut.  The  paying  of  a  tax  each  year  during  the  life  of  a  grow- 
ing crop  of  trees  makes  the  total  tax  paid  out  at  the  time  the 
timber  is  cut,  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  actual  value  of  the 
timber,  especially  since  the  money  paid  out  each  year  must 
run  at  compound  interest  up  to  the  time  the  crop  is  harvested. 

Many  of  the  states  have  given  some  attention  to  the  taxa- 
tion of  growing  timber.    In  some  of  them  legislation  has  been 
passed  by  which  growing  timber  is  placed  in  a  separate  classi- 
fication for  purposes  of  taxation.     The  plans  differ  in  many 
respects,  but  all  advocate  that  the  land  should  be  assessed 
on  a  basis  of  its  earning  capacity  and  that  the  timber  should  pay 
a  yield  tax  when  harvested.     In  New  York  State  the  timber 
when  harvested  pays  a  yield  tax  of  5  per  cent  of  the  value  of 
the  crop.     Michigan  lays  a  tax  of  5  per  cent  on  forest  planta- 
tions when  mature,  Massachusetts  6  per  cent,  and  Vermont, 
Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania  10  per  cent,  with  different  pro- 
visions for  forests  already  established.     In  Pennsylvania  the 
land  must  be  classified  by  the  State  Forestry  Department  as 
auxiliary  forest  reserves,  and  thereafter  the  land  cannot  be 
assessed  for  purposes  of  taxation  at  a  higher  valuation  than  $i 
per  acre.    The  state  compensates  school  and  road  districts  for 
the  loss  of  revenue  by  paying  into  the  local  funds  for  each  of 
these  purposes  state  moneys  at  the  rate  of  2.  cents  per  acre 
on  land  so  classified.     Vermont,  Massachusetts  and  Connecti- 
cut provide  for  a  valuation  of  the  land  separately  from  the 
timber  and  when  this  valuation  has  been  made  it  must  stand 
for  a  long  term  of  years.     There  are  many  variations  in  the 
details  of  the  laws,  but  they  all  agree  in  embodying  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  tax  on  the  yield  separate  from  a  tax  on  the  land. 
In  some  states  reforested  lands  are  exempted  from  the  pay- 
ment of  taxes  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  while  in  others 
bounties  and  rebates  are  given. 

Damages. — When  timber  in  a  woodlot  is  injured  by  fire 


WOODLOT  MANAGEMENT  143 

or  other  causes  damages  can  be  collected.  The  usual  measure 
of  damages  in  such  cases  is  the  difference  between  the  value 
of  the  timber  before  the  damage  and  the  value  after  the  dam- 
age. The  valuation  of  trees  in  woodlots  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  damages  is  usually  based  on  the  amount  of  cord- 
wood  it  will  cut.  Before  the  courts  generally  if  the  trees 
are  not  large  enough  to  cut  for  cordwood  they  have  no  value. 
A  future  value  of  young  forest  trees  is  not  recognized. 

If  a  young  apple  orchard  is  burned  soon  after  it  is  set  out 
and  before  it  has  begun  to  bear  fruit,  damages  can  be  col- 
lected far  in  advance  of  the  cost  of  the  establishment  of  the 
orchard  plus  the  interest  and  taxes  and  other  expenses  to  date. 
The  courts  recognize  a  value  in  a  young  orchard  that  is  based 
on  the  expectation  of  the  owner  of  harvesting  crops  of  apples 
in  the  future.  This  value  is  sometimes  called  the  expectation 
value.  A  young  colt  has  but  little  value  in  itself.  It  does  no 
work  and  is  a  constant  expense.  If  killed  the  owner  can,  how- 
ever, collect  damages  based  on  the  future  value  and  useful- 
ness of  the  animal.  The  same  reasoning  does  not  yet  apply  to 
young  stands  of  timber.  A  value  based  on  the  future  returns 
or  the  expectation  value  is  not  recognized.  The  expectation 
value  would  be  the  future  sale  value  discounted  back  to  the 
time  of  the  fire  minus  any  future  expenses.  There  is  no  rea- 
son why  such  a  value  should  not  be  recognized  and  allowed. 
That  it  is  not  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  principles  involved 
are  not  thoroughly  understood. 

In  addition  to  the  damage  to  the  present  stand  of  trees 
and  to  the  future  growth,  there  is  also  a  damage  to  the  soil 
resulting  from  the  burning  of  the  humus  that  has  been  many 
years  accumulating  and  which  acts  like  a  fertilizer  to  the 
trees.  Future  crops  will  grow  much  slower  because  of  the 
loss  of  humus  in  the  soil. 

Often  damages  to  trees  do  not  become  evident  at  once. 
After  a  winter  or  spring  fire  in  which  trees  have  been  injured 
badly  so  that  they  have  been  completely  girdled,  they  will 


144  FARM  FORESTRY 

often  leaf  out  in  the  spring  and  grow  vigorously  and  there 
will  be  no  evidence  of  serious  damage  having  been  done. 
The  same  trees  will  die  in  midsummer.  They  leaf  out  in  the 
spring  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  food  material  and  moisture 
stored  in  the  trunks  of  the  trees.  As  soon  as  the  stored  food 
has  been  used  up  and  the  moisture  withdrawn  the  trees  will 
die.  If  the  bark  is  peeled  away  from  the  lower  part  ~of  a 
tree  after  a  fire  the  damage,  if  any,  can  be  shown  by  the 
scorched  color  of  the  cambium  layer  or  inner  bark.  Trees 
only  partly  girdled  are  badly  damaged  because  of  the  death 
of  the  cambium  layer,  which  subjects  the  wood  to  attacks  by 
fungi  and  insects  that  may  render  a  large  portion  of  the 
tree  unfit  for  use. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT 

THE  chief  products  of  the  woodlot,  besides  material  used 
on  the  farm,  are  sawlogs,  lumber,  poles,  ties,  posts,  mine  tim- 
bers, cordwood,  etc. 

Sawlogs. — There  is  usually  a  good  demand  for  sawlogs 
by  local  sawmills.  The  woodlot  owner  should  know  what 
kinds  of  logs  and  what  lengths  can  be  marketed  and  the  value 
of  such  logs.  Often  the  butt  log,  as  with  hickory,  is  worth 
more  than  the  upper  logs.  A  special  market  should  be  sought 
wherever  possible.  Perfectly  sound  logs  are  in  demand  for 
many  purposes.  Logs  of  black  walnut  are  in  demand  for  gun 
stocks,  black  cherry  for  furniture,  ash  for  tool  handles,  willow 
for  gunpowder,  white  oak  for  quarter-sawed  stock,  tulip 
poplar  and  others  for  veneers.  Nearly  every  kind  of  wood 
has  a  use  for  which  it  is  adapted,  and  for  which  a  high  price 
is  paid  for  good  stock. 

The  standard  lengths  of  logs  are  12,  14  and  16  feet.  Short 
logs  are  often  cut  8  and  10  feet  long,  and  logs  longer  than  16 
feet  for  special  purposes.  It  is  the  rule  to  cut  logs  a  few 
inches  longer  than  the  length  of  material  to  be  manufactured, 
to  allow  for  bruising  the  ends  in  skidding  the  logs  out  of  the 
woods  and  also  for  squaring  the  ends  of  lumber.  Logs  should 
not  be  left  long  in  the  woods  after  being  cut.  If  it  is  not 
possible  to  saw  them  into  lumber  at  once  or  deliver  them  to 
the  mill  they  should  be  skidded  out  to  an  open  area  and  piled 
on  skidways.  Painting  the  ends  of  logs  or  coating  with  tar 
will  prevent  checking  or  splitting  of  the  ends. 

Lumber. — Lumber  is  cut  from  nearly  all  species  of  trees 

145 


146  FAEM  FORESTRY 

and  has  a  value  according  to  the  species  and  quality.  A  good 
local  market  is  often  found  among  neighboring  farms  and 
small  towns.  Special  orders  for  local  house  or  barn  construc- 
tion can  be  filled.  The  product  of  local  sawmills  is  not  in 
demand  in  general  competition  with  the  product  from  large 
sawmills,  because  most  of  the  product  manufactured  is  of  poor 
quality.  Because  of  the  light  weight  of  the  sawmill  machinery 
and  lack  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  sawyer  in  keeping  his  mill 
in  condition  and  in  the  sawing  of  the  lumber,  the  material  is 
not  uniform.  One  board  or  stick  may  be  a  little  wider  or 
thinner  than  another.  Boards  are  often  sawed  thicker  on  one 
end  than  on  the  other.  Carpenters  like  to  use  a  product  that 
is  uniform  throughout  and  that  does  not  vary.  The  product 
of  large  mills  is  in  demand  for  this  reason.  Yet  many  port- 
able sawmills  turn  out  an  almost  perfect  product. 

Boards  sawed  from  the  same  log  do  not  all  have  the  same 
value.  Those  sawed  from  the  outer  portions  of  the  log  will 
usually  be  clear,  without  defects  or  knots.  The  farther  into 
the  center  of  a  log  a  board  is  cut  the  more  knots  and  imper- 
fections it  may  have.  Boards  and  other  lumber  is  graded 
according  to  the  number,  size  and  location  of  the  defects  con- 
tained. The  more  perfect  the  lumber  and  the  freer  from 
defects  the  higher  the  grade  and  the  higher  the  price  the  lumber 
will  bring.  Lumber  is  sometimes  sold  as  it  comes  from  the 
mill,  all  grades  mixed  in  together,  called  the  mill  run.  Where 
lumber  is  to  be  sold  by  grades  a  knowledge  of  grades  is  neces- 
sary. Often  an  experienced  grader  can  be  employed,  if  not 
the  owner  should  make  a  study  of  the  chief  grades  of  different 
kinds  of  lumber  so  as  to  be  able  to  sort  the  boards.  Standard 
grades  for  lumber  have  been  established  and  are  in  use  and 
can  be  secured  through  the  State  Forester.  The  lower  grades 
have  but  little  or  no  market  value.  They  are  called  culls. 
These  can  be  used  about  the  farm  as  needed  or  cut  up  for 
firewood  and  kindling.  More  can  usually  be  made  by  sorting 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT  147 

the  boards  according  to  the  defects  and  kinds  and  selling  by 
grades  than  by  selling  the  mill  run. 

The  value  of  lumber  will  also  vary  according  to  the  way 
it  is  sawed  from  the  log.  Boards  cut  from  the  side  of  a  log 
have  what  is  called  flat  grain.  The  annual  rings  of  wood 
will  pass  through  the  board  at  a  greater  angle  than  45  degrees. 
Boards  cut  running  from  the  edge  toward  the  center  of  the 
log  will  have  the  annual  rings  more  or  less  vertical  to  the 
surface  of  the  boards.  Such  logs  are  called  rift-sawed  or 
quarter-sawed  boards.  In  quarter-sawed  boards  the  medul- 
lary rays  will  pass  through  the  board  from  edge  to  edge.  With 
woods  that  have  large  medullary  rays,  as  white  and  red  oak, 
cherry  and  sycamore,  the  medullary  rays  where  they  come  to 
the  surface  of  the  board  and  are  cut  across  by  the  saw,  will 
give  the  figured  grain  which  is  in  so  great  demand  for  furni- 
ture and  decorative  purposes.  The  name  quarter-sawed 
boards  comes  from  the  early  practice  of  first  cutting  the  log 
into  quarters  before  the  quarter-sawed  stock  was  cut.  Quar- 
ter-sawed boards  shrink  less  and  wear  better  than  flat  grained 
boards,  and  so  are  of  especial  value  for  flooring. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  keep  lumber  several  weeks  or 
months  after  it  has  been  sawed  before  a  sale  is  made  or  for 
the  purpose  of  seasoning  the  wood.  The  lumber  should  be 
sorted  as  nearly  as  possible  by  grades,  and  the  different  kinds 
and  sizes  piled  by  themselves  neatly  in  the  lumber  yard.  This 
should  be  located  in  an  open  area  where  there  is  a  good  circu- 
lation of  air  and  good  drainage.  The  lumber  should  not  be 
piled  on  the  ground,  but  should  be  raised  a  foot  or  more  on 
crosspieces.  The  edges  of  the  boards  should  not  touch  each 
other  and  between  every  two  tiers  of  boards  well-seasoned 
slats  should  be  placed  every  few  feet  to  permit  the  air  to 
circulate  freely.  The  front  and  rear  cleats  should  be  laid 
flush  with  the  ends  of  the  boards  to  prevent  checking,  and 
cleats  should  be  laid  one  above  another  to  keep  the  boards 
from  bending.  With  woods  that  have  a  tendency  to  warp 


148  FARM  FORESTRY 

the  cleats  should  be  placed  every  2  or  3  feet,  and  with  woods 
like  pine  and  spruce  they  can  be  placed  much  wider  apart. 

Poles. — There  is  a  demand  for  poles  in  nearly  all  regions 
for  telephone  and  telegraph  lines  and  by  street  railroads  and 
electric  power  lines.  The  kinds  of  wood  used  for  poles  will 
vary  in  different  regions.  Usually  a  strong,  light  and  soft 
wood  is  demanded,  but  use  is  made  of  the  species  that  grow 
in  any  region,  for  it  is  not  practical  to  ship  poles  any  great 
distance  because  of  their  weight. 

The  price  paid  for  poles  will  vary  with  the  species.  The 
value  of  poles  of  the  same  kind  of  wood  will  depend  largely 
on  the  length  and  condition.  Often  it  will  be  found  possible 
to  secure  a  greater  profit  from  poles  than  from  sawlogs  or 
ties.  A  farmer  should  be  able  to  figure  such  problems.  Poles 
should  be  cut  according  to  specifications.  Poles  are  usually 
classified  by  5  foot  lengths  beginning  at  20  feet  and  running 
up  to  60  or  more  feet,  with  a  top  diameter  of  7  inches  for  the 
smallest  poles.  There  exists  in  many  regions  a  good  market 
also  for  piles.  They  are  used  for  foundations  for  wharves, 
quays,  bridges,  retaining  walls,  etc.  Converter  poles  find  a 
ready  market  near  smelter  plants. 

Poles  and  piles  should  be  cut  only  when  there  is  a  mar- 
ket at  hand,  for  they  deteriorate  rapidly.  If  poles  cannot  be 
marketed  they  should  be  peeled  and  skidded  out  of  the  woods 
to  an  open  spot  where  the  air  circulates  freely  and  rolled  on 
skids  so  that  they  will  be  well  off  the  ground.  Poles  should 
not  be  piled  one  on  top  of  the  other,  but  should  be  one  layer 
deep,  and  they  should  be  laid  several  inches  apart  to  insure 
good  seasoning. 

Cross-Ties. — Where  there  is  a  demand  for  ties  they  are 
a  valuable  product  of  the  woodlot.  They  are  either  hewn  out 
in  the  woods  or  the  logs  are  hauled  to  the  sawmill  and  sawed 
to  proper  form  and  size.  There  are  several  grades  and  sizes 
of  ties,  from  the  highest  grades  used  in  the  main  lines  of  rail- 
roads to  the  small  and  short  ties  used  in  mines.  A  woodlot 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT  149 

owner  should  have  in  mind  the  grades  and  sizes  of  ties  for 
which  there  is  a  market  in  his  region  and  manufacture  them 
accordingly.  Formerly  only  hard,  durable  woods  were  used 
for  ties,  such  as  white  oak,  locust,  etc.  Owing  to  the  growing 
scarcity  of  the  more  durable  woods  many  other  kinds  of  woods 
are  in  demand.  The  process  of  treating  wood  with  creosote 
to  prolong  its  life  in  contact  with  the  ground  has  made  possible 
the  use  of  many  perishable  woods  for  ties,  such  as  hard  maple, 
beech  and  birch. 

It  may  be  possible,  owing  to  the  location  of  the  woodlot 
or  the  market,  that  logs  made  into  ties  will  yield  far  more 
than  when  sawed  into  lumber.  Such  facts  can  be  determined 
only  by  careful  investigation  of  the  conditions.  The  aim 
should  be  in  cutting  the  trees  in  the  woodlot  for  sale  to  manu- 
facture the  products  that  will  yield  the  greatest  profit. 

Fence  Posts. — Fence  posts  are  cut  in  different  lengths  ac- 
cording to  the  demands  of  the  user.  The  standard  post  is  7 
feet  long.  The  size  around  will  vary  often  with  the  use.  Line 
posts,  for  example,  need  not  be  as  strong  as  corner  posts. 
Usually  larger  posts  are  in  demand  for  it  is  believed  that 
they  will  last  longer  in  the  ground  before  rotting  off.  Posts 
should  be  large  enough  so  that  they  will  have  sufficient  heart- 
wood  to  furnish  the  strength  desired  when  the  sapwood 
decays,  for  the  sapwood  of  all  kinds  of  posts  will  decay 
quickly. 

Many  kinds  of  woods  are  used  for  fence  posts.  The 
length  of  life  of  posts  will  depend  primarily  on  the  durability 
of  the  wood.  Some  kinds  of  posts  will  last  but  two  or  three 
years  in  the  ground  before  rotting  off,  such  as  hickory,  soft 
maple  and  birch,  while  others  will  last  many  times  as  long, 
as  locust,  cedar  and  chestnut.  The  more  durable  the  wood 
the  greater  the  value  of  the  posts.  By  giving  fence  posts  a 
preservative  treatment  with  creosote  the  most  perishable  woods 
can  be  made  to  last  many  times  as  long  as  they  ordinarily 
would.  This  process  is  described  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 
Posts  should  not  be  left  lying  on  the  ground  after  being  cut, 


150  FARM  FORESTRY 

but  should  be  set  on  end  or  piled  in  open  piles  so  that  they 
will  season  well. 

Mine  Timbers. — In  the  neighborhood  of  mines  there  is 
usually  a  good  demand  for  mine  timbers.  These  vary  from 
heavy  props  and  supporting  timbers  to  small  sticks  but  3  or  4 
inches  in  diameter  called  lagging,  used  to  keep  earth  and  rock 
from  falling  into  the  mine  between  the  props.  Many  mine  ties 
are  also  used.  These  are  much  smaller  in  size  than  the  or- 
dinary ties  used  in  railroads.  Wood  is  used  in  mines  in 
preference  to  other  material,  because  it  will  give  way  slowly 
when  subject  to  great  weight,  gradually  splintering  and  crack- 
ing, giving  the  miners  warning  of  the  moving  rock  and  a 
chance  to  get  away.  Wood  decays  very  rapidly  in  mines 
owing  to  the  damp  conditions  so  it  must  be  replaced  often. 
Durable  woods  are  in  greatest  demand  but  where  these  are 
scarce  almost  any  strong  wood  is  accepted. 

Cordwood. — Fuel  wood  is  usually  cut  into  4- foot  lengths 
and  piled  in  stacks  4  feet  high  and  8  feet  long.  Such  a  stack 
occupies  128  cubic  feet.  A  cord  foot  is  one-eighth  of  a  cord 
or  a  pile  4  feet  high,  4  feet  wide  and  I  foot  long.  Surface 
feet  as  applied  to  cordwood  is  the  number  of  square  feet 
measured  on  the  side  of  a  stack.  Pulpwood  is  sometimes  cut 
in  5-foot  lengths,  in  which  case  a  stack  4  feet  high  and  8 
feet  long  will  contain  160  cubic  feet.  Wood  is  also  cut  in 
shorter  length,  as  15  or  18  inches  for  stove  wood,  or  2  to  3 
feet  long  for  other  purposes.  A  cord  of  such  wood  is  a  stack 
4  feet  high  and  8  feet  long.  It  is  often  called  a  short  cord. 
In  selling  a  short  cord  the  price  is  made  proportional  to  the 
length  of  the  pieces. 

The  amount  of  solid  wood  in  a  cord  will  vary  with  many 
factors.  The  more  important  ones  are  as  follows  : 

The  Form  of  the  Sticks. — If  the  wood  is  straight  and 
smooth,  such  as  body  wood  or  trunk  wood,  the  pieces  will 
lie  closer  and  a  cord  will  contain  more  wood  than  if  the  pieces 
are  crooked,  branched  or  forked,  such  as  limb  wood. 


Cord  wood  is  one  of  the  chief  products  of  the  woodlot. 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT  151 

The  Method  of  Stacking. — Where  the  wood  is  thrown  on  a 
pile  without  much  order,  some  pieces  being  crossed,  less  wood 
will  be  contained  in  a  pile  than  if  the  pieces  are  regularly 
stacked.  In  measuring  stacked  cordwood  it  is  customary  to 
deduct  a  certain  amount  from  the  measurement  if  the  wood 
is  not  carefully  piled. 

Whether  the  Wood  is  Large  or  Small. — The  smaller  the 
pieces  of  wood  the  more  space  they  will  occupy.  A  cord  of 
wood  swells  by  splitting  the  pieces.  Large  wood  stacks  closer 
than  small  wood.  It  is  customary  to  split  large  pieces  into 
smaller  ones  for  fuel  wood.  This  permits  of  better  drying 
of  the  wood. 

In  general  a  standard  cord  will  contain  about  90  cubic 
feet  of  solid  wood.  Large,  smooth,  straight  wood,  such  as 
pulpwood,  will  contain  often  as  high  as  100  cubic  feet  per 
cord,  while  a  pile  of  small  crooked  wood  may  contain  but  30 
to  40  cubic  feet  or  less. 

Cordwood  for  sale  should  be  piled  neatly  and  regularly. 
It  should  not  be  stacked  in  the  woods  but  should  be  hauled 
out  to  an  open  place  and  stacked  where  the  sun  and  wind 
will  quickly  season  the  wood.  It  should  be  stacked  on  sticks 
run  lengthwise  of  the  pile  and  not  on  the  ground.  Rank  vege- 
tation should  not  be  permitted  to  grow  up  around  it,  for  it 
will  keep  the  lower  part  of  the  stack  moist  and  subject  to 
decay.  Cordwood  is  supposed  to  be  made  of  green  wood,  cut, 
piled  and  seasoned.  If  too  much  dead  wood  is  mixed  in  with 
the  green  wood  the  cordwood  will  have  a  dull  appearance  and 
will  bring  a  lower  price. 

Very  often  special  markets  can  be  found  for  cordwood, 
especially  near  large  towns.  Selected  pieces  of  hickory  or 
oak  cut  to  proper  length  for  burning  in  fireplaces  and  well 
seasoned  will  bring  more  than  the  same  wood  cut  and  stacked 
in  the  usual  way.  Many  wood-using  industries  purchase  wood 
of  certain  sizes  cut  and  piled  in  cords.  Woods  vary  in  the 


152  FAEM  FORESTRY 

amount  of  heat  given  off  in  burning.     In  general  the  heavier 
the  wood  the  more  heat  it  will  give  out. 

Other  Products. — There  are  many  other  products  furnished 
by  farm  woodlots  most  of  them  however,  supplying  only  a 
local  demand.  More  can  often  be  made  by  supplying  these 
special  markets  than  from  the  ordinary  products.  In  the 
vicinity  of  pulp  mills  soft  wood  like  spruce,  poplar,  aspen, 
hemlock  and  pine  are  usually  in  demand.  Acid  factories  and 
distillation  plants  require  large  quantities  of  wood  like  beech, 
birch  and  maple.  Wood  is  in  demand  in  many  regions  for 
wagon  stock,  tight  and  slack  cooperage,  and  for  making  furni- 
ture and  chairs.  The  bark  of  trees  especially  of  hemlock  and 
chestnut  oak  is  in  demand  for  tanning  leather.  Sometimes 
more  can  be  made  out  of  the  bark  of  a  tree  than  out  of  the 
wood. 


The  results  of  destructive  lumbering.     The  future  of  the  forest  is  destroyed. 


CHAPTER  XV 
HARVESTING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT 

THE  object  of  maintaining  a  woodlot  is  the  utilization  of 
the  wood  products.  It  is  seldom  that  a  woodlot  is  grown  for 
sentimental  or  esthetic  purposes  alone.  There  is  no  reason, 
however,  why  if  properly  cared  for  a  woodlot  cannot  be  orna- 
mental as  well  as  serve  a  useful  purpose.  A  woodlot  is  for 
use  primarily.  When  a  tree  is  ready  for  the  ax  it  should  be 
cut.  Forestry  does  not  mean  preserving  trees,  it  means  pre- 
serving the  life  of  the  forest  growth.  As  we  have  already 
learned,  forestry  is  the  growing  of  successive  crops  of  trees. 
This  implies  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  when  it  is  ripe.  In 
forestry  the  trees  would  be  cut  when  ripe  the  same  as  in 
lumbering;  but  forestry  differs  from  destructive  lumbering 
in  that  in  cutting  the  timber  the  future  life  of  the  forest  is 
provided  for.  In  destructive  lumbering  the  trees  would  be 
cut  without  any  thought  for  the  future,  the  object  being  to 
convert  the  standing  trees  into  lumber  and  money  in  the 
quickest  time  and  cheapest  way.  The  result  is  generally  a  bar- 
ren waste,  due  to  fire  and  the  destruction  of  young  trees  and 
seedlings.  According  to  forestry  methods,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  trees  would  be  cut  not  only  to  utilize  them  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, but  also  with  the  future  of  the  forest  in  view.  The 
trees  would  be  cut  so  that  a  new  crop  would  spring  up  after 
the  old  trees  are  removed. 

THE  AGE  AND  SIZE  AT  WHICH  TREES  SHOULD  BE  CUT 

The  age  and  size  at  which  a  tree  becomes  ripe  for  the  ax 
will  depend  on  the  purpose  for  which  the  tree  was  grown  or 

153 


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£    3 


CHAPTER  XV 
HARVESTING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT 

THE  object  of  maintaining  a  woodlot  is  the  utilization  of 
the  wood  products.  It  is  seldom  that  a  woodlot  is  grown  for 
sentimental  or  esthetic  purposes  alone.  There  is  no  reason, 
however,  why  if  properly  cared  for  a  woodlot  cannot  be  orna- 
mental as  well  as  serve  a  useful  purpose.  A  woodlot  is  for 
use  primarily.  When  a  tree  is  ready  for  the  ax  it  should  be 
cut.  Forestry  does  not  mean  preserving  trees,  it  means  pre- 
serving the  life  of  the  forest  growth.  As  we  have  already 
learned,  forestry  is  the  growing  of  successive  crops  of  trees. 
This  implies  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  when  it  is  ripe.  In 
forestry  the  trees  would  be  cut  when  ripe  the  same  as  in 
lumbering;  but  forestry  differs  from  destructive  lumbering 
in  that  in  cutting  the  timber  the  future  life  of  the  forest  is 
provided  for.  In  destructive  lumbering  the  trees  would  be 
cut  without  any  thought  for  the  future,  the  object  being  to 
convert  the  standing  trees  into  lumber  and  money  in  the 
quickest  time  and  cheapest  way.  The  result  is  generally  a  bar- 
ren waste,  due  to  fire  and  the  destruction  of  young  trees  and 
seedlings.  According  to  forestry  methods,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  trees  would  be  cut  not  only  to  utilize  them  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, but  also  with  the  future  of  the  forest  in  view.  The 
trees  would  be  cut  so  that  a  new  crop  would  spring  up  after 
the  old  trees  are  removed. 

THE  AGE  AND  SIZE  AT  WHICH  TREES  SHOULD  BE  CUT 

The  age  and  size  at  which  a  tree  becomes  ripe  for  the  ax 
will  depend  on  the  purpose  for  which  the  tree  was  grown  or 

153 


154  FARM  FORESTRY 

the  purpose  for  which  it  can  best  be  utilized.  If  trees  are 
grown  for  fence  posts  they  are  ripe  and  should  be  cut  when 
they  reach  fence  post  size.  If  a  fence  post  is  wanted  from 
a  woodlot  a  tree  suitable  for  the  purpose  should  be  selected 
and  cut,  provided  it  is  not  needed  by  the  woodlot  for  protec- 
tion to  the  soil  or  for  seeding  up  the  ground  with  seedlings, 
and  provided  it  will  not  serve  a  better  purpose  later  if  allowed 
to  grow  larger,  and  also  provided  there  are  no  poorer  trees 
that  will  serve  the  purpose  just  as  well.  The  aim  should  be  to 
utilize  each  tree  for  that  purpose  for  which  it  is  best  suited. 
Trees  often  are  cut  from  the  woodlot  without  any  thought 
as  to  their  fitness  for  any  definite  use.  If  a  tree  will  make  a 
good  sawlog  it  should  be  kept  until  lumber  is  needed,  and 
not  cut  for  cordwood  because  the  wood  is  straight  grained 
and  easy  to  split.  If  a  tree  has  a  wood  that  is  suited  for  a 
particular  purpose  and  for  which  there  is  a  high  demand  it 
should  not  be  cut  for  another  purpose. 

When  trees  are  cut  from  the  woodlot  for  sale  they  should 
be  utilized  when  they  will  yield  the  highest  returns  in  money. 
The  size  and  age  will  vary  in  different  regions  with  the  con- 
ditions. Often  trees  cut  when  small  and  grown  several  short 
rotations  by  coppice  will  bring  in  a  larger  revenue  than  if  held 
before  cutting  an  equal  time  until  they  become  large  in  size. 
Small  second  growth  hickory,  for  example,  is  in  demand  for 
spokes  and  ax  handles.  It  is  often  grown  on  short  rotations 
for  this  purpose.  As  soon  as  the  sprouts  become  large  enough 
they  are  cut  and  sold.  Chestnut  and  red  oak  coppice  are  grown 
on  short  rotations  often  of  eight  to  twelve  years  to  produce 
small  sticks  or  lagging  for  use  in  mines.  More  can  often  be 
obtained  in  this  way  where  there  is  a  good  market  than  if 
the  trees  were  allowed  to  grow  to  large  size  before  cutting. 

As  we  have  seen  trees  grow  slowly  at  first,  but  soon  begin 
a  rapid  height  and  diameter  growth  that  continues  to  middle 
life  or  through  the  pole  stage  in  some  species,  after  that  the 
rate  of  growth  decreases  until  in  an  old  tree  the  annual  rings 


Felling  a  tree  with  the  crosscut  saw. 


HARVESTING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT  155 

are  very  narrow.  In  general  trees  should  be  harvested  when 
.hay  are  financially  ripe,  or  before  the  slower  growth  of  old 
age  begins.  When  the  increased  value  of  a  larger  product  or 
its  usefulness  will  make  up  for  the  loss  due  to  the  slower 
growth,  trees  should  be  allowed  to  grow  to  large  size.  When 
a  tree  becomes  over  mature  in  the  woodlot  because  of  the  very 
slow  growth  wounds  are  not  covered  over  quickly  and  the 
exposed  wood  is  soon  attacked  by  fungi  and  begins  to  decay. 
Trees  in  the  woodlot  should  be  harvested  while  the  wood  is 
sound. 

Cutting  Trees  from  the  Woodlot. — The  products  from  the 
small  woodlot  for  farm  use  and  for  sale  are  usually  harvested 
by  the  owner  himself.  He  goes  into  the  woods  each  winter 
with  his  help  and  cuts  out  such  material  as  is  needed.  In 
cutting  a  tree  an  undercut  is  made  with  the  ax  on  the  side 
of  the  trunk,  to  determine  the  direction  the  tree  is  to  fall  and 
to  .keep  the  tree  from  splitting  and  kicking  back.  This  should 
be  cut  about  2  inches  deep  in  coniferous  trees,  and  in  hard- 
woods it  should  extend  to  the  center  of  the  tree.  It  should 
be  made  as  low  down  on  the  trunk  as  possible.  It  is  more 
difficult  to  saw  a  low  stump  than  a  high  one,  but  much  good 
wood  is  thrown  away  in  cutting  high  stumps.  The  added  ma- 
terial will  more  than  repay  any  extra  exertion  necessary.  Low 
stumps  sprout  better  than  high  onesf  and  in  growing  trees 
from  sprouts  this  is  an  important  consideration. 

The  cross-cut  saw  is  then  used  to  saw  the  tree  through 
from  the  opposite  side.  The  bark  should  be  chipped  off 
round  the  tree  where  the  saw  will  cut  so  that  it  will  not  impede 
the  motion  of  the  saw.  The  saw  should  be  started  about  2 
inches  above  the  notch  and  drawn  back  and  forth  with  a 
regular,  smooth  swing.  It  should  not  be  forced  hard  against 
the  wood,  but  allowed  to  run  freely  in  contact  with  it.  If  the 
kerf  is  sawed  parallel  to  the  notch  the  tree  will  fall  in  that 
direction.  If  one  corner  of  the  notch  is  sawed  across  before 
the  other  the  tree  will  have  a  tendency  to  swing  away  from 


156  FARM  FORESTRY 

the  severed  corner.  If  the  tree  settles  back  and  pinches  the 
saw,  wedges  made  from  hardwood  or  iron  are  driven  into  the 
kerf  back  of  the  saw.  This  lifts  the  tree  off  the  saw  and  helps 
to  throw  the  tree  in  the  desired  direction.  It  is  dangerous  to 
attempt  to  throw  a  tree  against  a  strong  wind.  As  soon  as 
the  tree  starts  to  move  the  saw  should  be  drawn  out  of  the 
kerf.  There  is  danger  in  standing  directly  behind  a  tree  that 
is  falling,  because  it  is  apt  to  jump  or  kick  back  many  feet. 
Standing  near  the  stump  one  can  readily  judge  the  direction 
the  tree  is  falling.  It  is  safer  to  stand  near  the  stump  and 
to  move  back  a  few  feet  to  avoid  the  jumping  of  the  trunk 
than  to  run  without  looking.  Often  limbs  broken  off  the  tree 
or  from  neighboring  trees  will  fall  both  before  and  after 
the  tree  is  down,  and  should  be  looked  out  for. 

After  the  tree  is  down  the  limbs  are  chopped  off  with 
the  ax  smooth  with  the  trunk  and  the  lengths  of  the  prod- 
ucts desired  are  marked  off.  This  should  be  done  with  care 
so  that  the  most  possible  can  be  made  out  of  the  tree.  Usually 
the  butt  log  in  a  sound  tree  contains  the  best  material.  If  the 
butt  is  found  to  be  decayed  it  must  be  cut  or  butted  off.  It 
is  best  to  measure  the  entire  length  of  the  merchantable  part 
of  the  trunk  and  then  decide  how  it  can  be  worked  up  to  the 
best  advantage.  Defects  can  be  sawed  across  so  that  they 
will  come  at  the  ends  of  logs.  If  the  trunk  has  a  crook  it  is 
possible  to  reduce  its  effect  by  cutting  at  the  middle  of  the 
bend.  A  long  log  will  usually  bring  a  better  price  than  two 
short  logs  of  equal  length.  The  lengths  of  the  logs  are 
determined  usually  by  the  market  or  the  product  desired.  The 
whole  trunk  of  the  tree  should  be  utilized  and  not  part  left 
in  the  woods.  The  upper  log  though  full  of  knots  can  often 
be  made  into  a  tie  or  fence  post.  The  products  having  been 
marked  off  they  are  cut  by  means  of  the  cross-cut  saw. 

The  logs  must  then  be  dragged  or  skidded  out  to  the 
roads.  This  is  done  by  horses,  a  chain  being  looped  about 
the  large  end  of  the  log  or  fastened  to  tongs.  Often  the 


HARVESTING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT  157 

edges  of  the  log  are  beveled  off  or  "nosed''  to  prevent  them 
catching  on  stones  or  roots.  Sometimes  when  there  is  snow 
the  end  of  the  log  or  of  several  logs  are  raised  on  a  single 
sled  and  chained  fast,  the  other  ends  dragging  on  the  ground. 
The  logs  are  skidded  out  to  the  road  and  either  piled  on  skid- 
ways,  from  which  they  are  rolled  on  to  the  wagons  or  sleds, 
or  they  are  loaded,  from  the  ground.  In  this  case  two  stout 
poles  or  skids  are  cut  from  the  woods  and  laid  against  the 
side  of  the  wagon  or  sled,  and  the  logs  rolled  up  them  by 
means  of  a  chain  fastened  to  the  wagon,  passed  under  and 
over  the  log  and  back  over  the  wagon  to  the  horses.  When 
the  sled  or  wagon  is  loaded  the  logs  are  held  in  place  by  a  chain 
and  hauled  out  to  the  mill. 

After  the  logs  have  been  removed  the  rest  of  the  tree 
should  be  manufactured  into  cordwood,  fence  posts  or  ties. 
All  the  tree  of  any  value  for  sale  or  for  use  on  the  farm 
should  be  utilized  in  some  way.  Where  there  is  danger  from 
fire  the  branches  should  be  piled  and  later  on  burned  before 
the  dry  season  begins. 

CARE    NEEDED   IN    CUTTING   TREES    FROM    THE   WOODLOT 

The  removal  of  a  tree  from  the  woodlot  naturally  causes 
considerable  damage  to  surrounding  trees  and  especially  to 
the  young  trees  and  seedlings.  Some  damage  cannot  be  helped, 
but  it  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  proper  care  as  to  the 
direction  the  tree  is  to  fall.  With  the  use  of  a  wedge  a  tree 
can  be  caused  to  fall  in  any  desired  direction,  unless  it  is  a 
badly  leaning  tree.  It  should  be  made  to  fall  so  that  the 
crown  will  slip  between  the  crowns  of  other  trees  so  as  not 
to  break  them.  It  should  fall  away  from  valuable  young 
growth  and  if  possible  toward  an  open  space.  When  a  tree 
is  to  be  felled  it  is  usual  to  cut  away  all  the  young  growth, 
seedlings  and  saplings,  about  the  tree,  so  they  will  not  inter- 
fere with  the  free  swing  of  the  ax.  The  ax  is  a  dangerous 


158  FARM  FORESTRY 

instrument  even  to  an  experienced  chopper,  especially  if  it 
catches  on  a  branch  of  a  young  tree  and  springs  back.  All 
precautions  should  be  taken,  but  as  little  cutting  should  be 
done  as  possible.  It  is  on  these  young  trees  and  seedlings 
that  start  under  the  shade  of  the  larger  trees  that  the  owner 
must  rely  to  fill  in  the  vacant  spaces  caused  by  the  trees  re- 
moved. Often  a  fine  young  sapling  can  be  bent  down-  and 
held  in  place  by  a  forked  stick  driven  into  the  ground  until 
a  tree  has  been  cut.  The  sapling  can  be  straightened  up  later 
without  injury.  The  growth  of  many  years  can  be  destroyed 
thoughtlessly  by  a  single  slash  with  the  ax. 

In  logging  or  skidding  logs  from  the  woodlot  a  little  care 
will  prevent  useless  breakage,  bending  and  trampling  of  young 
growth.  All  the  logs  from  a  certain  part  of  the  woodlot 
can  be  dragged  out  over  the  same  path  often  with  much  less 
effort  and  with  less  damage  to  the  woodlot  than  where  each 
log  is  skidded  out  over  a  separate  path.  When  the  trees  in 
the  woodlot  are  sold  to  lumbermen  they  should  be  made  to 
protect  young  growth  as  much  as  possible.  The  owner  should 
formulate  and  have  carried  out  by  written  contract  such  rules 
in  regard  to  the  trees  to  cut  and  the  methods  of  logging  used 
as  will  tend  to  protect  young  trees  and  seedlings  and  benefit 
the  future  stand  of  timber.  By  this  method  it  is  possible  to 
sell  only  certain  material  from  the  woodlot  and  to  avoid  the 
skinning  of  the  land.  The  owner  can  have  the  defective  and 
diseased  trees  and  the  trees  of  inferior  species  removed  as 
well  as  those  of  high  quality.  If  the  inferior  trees  are  left 
to  grow  and  scatter  seed  and  the  better  kinds  cut,  the  future 
stand  will  be  of  less  value  than  the  present  timber.  The  owner 
can  stipulate  that  with  the  better  kinds  of  trees  those  above 
a  certain  size  only  shall  be  cut,  and  that  inferior  trees  shall 
be  removed  down  to  a  low  diameter  limit.  It  is  rarely  that 
trees  of  less  than  10  inches  in  diameter  at  breast  height  have 
any  special  value.  They  usually  cut  only  a  small  amount  of 
low  grade  lumber.  The  lumberman  does  not  figure  on  paying 


The  portable  sawmill  outfit  in  the  woodlot. 


Hewing  out  ties  in  the  woodlot. 


HARVESTING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT  159 

much  for  them.  He  gets  out  of  them  whatever  he  can.  Trees 
of  that  size,  however,  are  growing  rapidly,  and  will  grow  more 
rapidly  after  the  trees  around  them  have  been  removed  open- 
ing up  the  crowns  to  the  light.  A  lumber  operation  in  a  wood- 
lot  should  be  made  to  result  ultimately  in  the  establishment 
of  a  better  stand  of  trees  than  the  old  timber. 

Harvesting  the  Crop  from  a  Large  Woodlot. — When  a 
woodlot  is  to  be  cut  clean  or  when  many  trees  are  to  be  cut 
from  a  large  woodlot  there  are  two  general  methods  that 
can  be  followed  by  the  owner.  The  operation  can  be  carried 
on  by  the  owner  himself  or  the  timber  can  be  sold  to  a  lum- 
berman and  removed  by  him.  Where  the  owner  carries  on 
the  operation  he  can  haul  the  product  to  a  local  sawmill  and 
sell  it  or  have  it  sawed  into  lumber;  he  can  purchase  a  port- 
able sawmill  and  do  his  own  sawing,  or  he  can  have  a  portable 
mill  brought  on  his  tract  to  saw  the  timber.  Which  one  of 
these  several  methods  would  be  best  to  use  could  be  deter- 
mined only  by  a  careful  study  of  the  conditions  on  each  wood- 
lot  and  of  the  market.  If  there  is  a  good  and  ready  market 
for  the  sale  of  all  products  from  the  woodlot,  the  owner 
can  usually  make  more  profit  if  he  is  a  skillful  operator  by 
carrying  on  the  operation  himself  and  selling  the  products. 
If  the  market  is  dull  and  lumber  and  other  products  are  hard 
to  dispose  of,  it  may  be  better  to  sell  the  stumpage  outright 
to  a  lumberman  who  has  made  a  study  of  markets  and  can 
usually  dispose  of  the  products  at  a  profit.  The  advantage  to 
the  owner  of  carrying  on  the  operation  himself  is  that  he 
can  employ  his  help  profitably  throughout  the  winter,  he  can 
exercise  care  not  to  injure  young  growth  unnecessarily  or  to 
break  young  trees  or  strip  them  of  branches  in  felling  other 
trees,  he  can  leave  the  younger  trees  to  grow  to  larger  size, 
or  he  can  leave  seed  trees  to  seed  up  vacant  areas.  It  is  not 
necessary  for  him  to  skin  the  land.  He  can  cut  and  sell 
what  he  wishes  and  leave  the  rest.  He  can  practice  forestry 
in  the  cutting  of  the  timber. 


160  FARM  FORESTRY 

If  a  lumberman  purchases  the  timber  and  carries  on  the 
logging  operation  he  will  probably  give  little  thought  to  the 
future  of  the  woodlot.  His  efforts  will  be  directed  toward 
removing  the  trees  and  young  timber  at  the  least  possible  ex- 
pense. Having  purchased  the  entire  tract  he  will  cut  out  every- 
thing that  will  yield  him  a  profit.  Many  woodlots  never  re- 
cover from  the  destructive  methods  often  practiced  by  lumber 
operators. 

Lumbering,  however,  is  a  business  in  itself  and  requires 
expensive  machinery,  skill  and  efficiency  in  operating,  and 
ability  to  dispose  of  the  products.  With  most  woodlot  owners 
it  will  usually  be  best  to  dispose  of  the  timber  on  the  stump 
to  a  practical  lumberman,  making  such  stipulations  in  the  con- 
tract as  are  necessary  to  protect  the  future  of  the  woodlot. 

COST    OF    HARVESTING    PRODUCTS    FROM    THE    WOODLOT 

No  definite  figures  can  be  given  as  to  the  cost  of  harvest- 
ing the  products  from  the  woodlot.  There  are  many  factors 
that  will  affect  the  cost  of  the  different  parts  of  an  operation. 
For  example,  the  cost  of  cutting  down  trees  will  vary  with 
the  species  of  tree.  It  takes  a  longer  time  to  cut  down  and 
saw  up  an  oak  tree  than  a  pine  tree,  because  of  its  harder 
wood.  It  will  cost  more  to  get  logs  and  other  products  from 
a  woodlot  that  is  on  a  steep  slope  or  that  is  rocky  or  covered 
with  brush  than  from  a  woodlot  on  level  land,  clean  and  open. 
The  distance  necessary  to  haul  the  products  to  the  mill  or 
market  will  vary  with  different  woodlots.  The  skill  of  the 
workmen  in  the  woods,  the  cost  of  labor,  the  climate  and 
the  size  of  the  operation  are  other  factors  that  must  be  con- 
sidered. 

The  following  data,  taken  from  the  second  Report  of  the 
State  Forester  of  Kentucky,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  cost 
of  different  operations  in  the  woods : 


HARVESTING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT  161 


COST  OF  LOGGING  (HARDWOODS) 


Cost  ] 

Der  1000  '. 

3d.ft. 

Low. 

High. 

Avge. 

Felling  End  cutting  into  logs          .... 

$     7=5 

$1    7^ 

$1    2< 

Skidding  (often  omitted  or  included  with  hauling 
expenses)  (including  swamping)      

2    OO 

4   OO 

•2    OO 

Hauling,  i  trip  a  day  *: 
1000  feet  per  load  

2  .OO 

4  oo 

7    OO 

800  feet  per  load  
600  feet  per  load  

2.50 

7  .  27 

5.00 

6.67 

3.00 

s  oo 

400  feet  per  load  

5.OO 

IO.OO 

7  •  ^o 

200  feet  per  load 

IO    OO 

20  oo 

I  ^    OO 

Loading 

I    OO 

CQ 

MANUFACTURE  AND  HANDLING  OF  LUMBER 


Sawing  and  stacking 

Planing  and  finishing 

Handling  lumber  in  yard  (including  grading  and 

loading 

Hauling,  i  trip  a  day  *: 

(1000  board-feet  per  load) 

Loading  on  cars 


Cost  per  1000  Bd.ft. 


Low. 

High. 

Avge. 

$3.00 
i  .00 

$4.00 

2  .00 

$3-50 
1-50 

I  .00 

I  .OO 

I  .OO 

2.00 
•50 

4.00 
1.50 

3.00 
1  .00 

COST  OF  TIE  PRODUCTION 
(For  7X9  tie;  6X8  tie  one-fifth  less) 


C 

Dst  per  Ti 

e. 

Low. 

High. 

Avge. 

Cutting  and  hewing  ties                         

$     .12 

$     18 

$      M 

Cutting  and  sawing  ties  by  portable  mill  
Hauling,  i  trip  a  day  *  : 
10  ties         

•15 

.  2O 

.  20 
.4.0 

.18 

TO 

15  ties      

•  I  ^ 

•  30 

.  22 

20  ties          

.  IO 

.  20 

•  IS 

Loading  on  cars  

•O7. 

.05 

.04 

*  For  more  than  one  trip  a  day  divide  these  amounts  by  the  number  of  trips  per 
day.  For  less  than  one  trip  a  day  multiply  these  amounts  by  the  number  of  days 
per  trip. 


162 


FARM  FORESTRY 


COST  OF  POLE  AND  PILE  PRODUCTION 

(35-feet  lergth,  6  inches  top) 


Cost  i 

>er  Pole  o 

r  Pile. 

' 

Low. 

High. 

Avge. 

Cutting  and  trimming  

$    .20 

$    .40 

$3O 

Hauling,  i  trip  a  day  f: 
3  poles  per  load  

.66 

1  .  3"? 

I    OO 

4  poles  per  load 

ro 

I    OO 

7  ^ 

5  poles  per  load 

4O 

80 

60 

Loading  on  cars. 

oc 

I  r 

IO 

t  For  more  than  one  trip  divide  these  amounts  by  the  number  of  trips. 
COST  OF  PRODUCING  MATERIAL  PER  CORD 


Cutting 
Hauling, 

(per  stacked  cord  of  4-foot  wood)  

Cost  per  Cord. 

Low. 

$    -75 
.?.oo 

High. 

$1.25 
4.00 

Avge. 

$i  .00 
3.00 

i  trip  a  day  

Peeled  poles,  ready  to  be  hauled  out  of  the  woodlot. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

MARKETING    THE    TIMBER   AND    THE    PRODUCTS    OF 
THE  WOODLOT 

THERE  are  several  methods  of  selling  the  trees  standing 
in  the  woodlot,  or  the  stumpage,  as  it  is  called.  The  common 
method  is  to  sell  the  timber  by  the  boundary  for  "a  lump  sum" 
or  "by  the  lot"  or  "on  the  stump."  A  sawmill  man  goes 
through  the  woodlot  usually  without  the  owner  being  aware 
of  the  fact,  and  estimates  the  timber.  He  records  every  saw- 
log,  pole,  tie,  post  or  other  product  that  he  can  cut  from  it. 
He  figures  carefully  and  closely  just  what  profit  can  be  made 
from  the  woodlot.  He  then  offers  the  owner  a  certain  sum 
for  the  entire  tract.  Knowing  nothing  as  to  the  quantity  of 
material  in  his  woodlot  and  less  about  the  value  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  woods  or  their  use  for  special  purposes,  the 
offer  may  seem  large  to  the  owner  and  he  accepts  it.  Such 
a  sale  is  always  in  the  interest  of  the  purchaser.  Lumbermen 
figure  on  at  least  a  25  per  cent  leeway.  There  is  rarely  any 
competitive  bidding  for  the  timber.  The  purchaser  makes  his 
own  bargain. 

A  second  method  is  to  sell  the  stumpage  according  to  an 
estimate  made  by  some  competent  forester  or  practical  woods- 
man who  is  acceptable  to  both  buyer  and  seller.  This  is  a 
method  in  common  use.  Where  the  estimator  is  reliable  and 
has  good  judgment  in  regard  to  allowing  for  defects  and  rot 
in  trees,  and  is  a  careful  and  skillful  worker,  this  method  is 
a  fairly  satisfactory  one.  It  gives  the  least  trouble  to  tbe 
woodlot  owner.  Where  restrictions  are  made  as  to  the  kinds 
and  sizes  of  trees  to  be  cut,  some  supervision  will  be  neces- 

163 


164  FARM  FORESTRY 

sary.  In  this  case  it  will  be  better  to  have  some  competent 
person  go  through  the  woodlot  and  mark  all  the  trees  to  be 
removed. 

The  only  safe  and  equitable  way  of  selling  timber  is  to 
have  the  purchaser  pay  for  the  material  as  it  is  cut  and  re- 
moved from  the  woodlot  or  as  delivered  at  the  mill,  so  much 
per  piece  or  per  unit  amount,  the  method  of  logging  and  the 
price  for  each  kind  of  material  to  be  agreed  on  beforehand  in 
writing.  The  products  of  the  woodlot  would  be  measured  by 
the  woodlot  owner  and  the  purchaser,  or  by  a  log  sealer  ac- 
ceptable to  both  parties,  and  by  the  use  of  a  certain  log  scale 
or  other  unit  in  general  use.  This  is  the  method  of  selling 
timber  used  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service.  An  esti- 
mate is  made  of  the  timber  before  the  sale,  to  serve  as  a  basis 
for  making  a  bargain  and  setting  a  price  on  the  timber.  The 
material  is  paid  for,  however,  according  to  the  scale  sent  in 
by  the  government  sealer,  who  determines  the  number  of 
board  feet  in  every  log  by  a  log  rule  and  measures  the  number 
or  lengths  of  all  sticks  of  timber  removed. 

THE  STUMPAGE  VALUE  OF  TIMBER 

The  stumpage  value  of  timber  in  a  woodlot  will  depend  on 
several  factors  which  will  vary  for  different  regions  and 
conditions. 

On  the  Amount  of  Standing  Timber  in  the  Region. — 
The  stumpage  price  of  timber  has  gradually  risen  as  the  old 
virgin  timber  has  been  cut.  In  regions  where  much  of  the 
old  timber  still  remains  the  stumpage  price  is  low,  as  in  the 
South,  where  the  stumpage  price  of  timber  is  often  as  low 
as  $i  per  thousand  board  feet.  In  the  Lake  States  nearly  all 
the  virgin  pine  stands  have  been  cut  and  stumpage  values 
for  good  white  pine  timber  run  as  high  as  $15  per  thousand. 

On  the  Demand  for  the  Timber. — Where  there  is  a  ready 
market  for  the  sale  of  the  products  of  the  woodlot,  the  stump- 


MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT   165 

age  price  will  be  high.  Often  individual  trees  of  good  form 
and  quality  bring  a  very  high  price,  as  in  the  Ohio  Valley, 
where  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  timber  and  the  necessity  of 
freighting  logs  from  the  Appalachian  Region,  trees  in  the 
farm  woodlot  are  in  great  demand  by  wood-using  industries. 

On  the  Nearness  to  Market. — The  length  of  the  haul 
directly  affects  the  stumpage  price.  If  but  one  trip  can  be 
made  to  market  a  day  standing  timber  will  be  worth  less  than 
where  two  trips  a  day  can  be  made. 

On  the  Species  of  Trees  and  the  Condition  of  the  Timber. — 
Not  all  trees  have  equal  commercial  value.  The  woods  of 
some  species  have  many  uses  while  the  woods  of  other  kinds 
of  trees  are  of  little  if  any  value.  Where  trees  are  adapted 
to  a  special  use  the  stumpage  price  will  be  high.  Sound  timber 
brings  a  higher  price  than  defective,  diseased  or  insect-infested 
timber. 

On  the  Amount  of  Timber  Per  Acre  and  the  Extent  of 
the  Tract. — The  more  timber  there  is  in  a  woodlot  the  better 
price  it  will  bring.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  more 
timber  that  can  be  hauled  over  the  same  log  road  or  that  can 
be  sawed  by  the  same  set-up  of  the  sawmill,  the  less  the  expense 
in  manufacturing  the  lumber. 

On  the  Logging  Cost. — The  greater  the  cost  of  logging  a 
tract  the  lower  the  stumpage  price  will  be.  With  the  same 
kind  and  character  of  timber  the  stumpage  price  will  be  less 
on  steep  rocky  land  than  where  the  logging  conditions  are 
better. 

On  Whether  all  the  Timber  is  to  be  Sold  or  Some  Re- 
served.— Where  seed  trees  are  to  be  left  to  seed  up  the  area 
or  small  trees  below  a  certain  diameter  limit  are  to  be  left  to 
grow  to  larger  size,  the  stumpage  price  will  be  less  than  where 
all  the  timber  is  sold.  This  is  not  only  due  to  the  smaller 
amount  of  timber  to  be  logged,  but  also  because  of  the  care 
that  must  be  taken  in  felling  trees  and  in  logging  not  to  injure 
the  trees  left. 


166  FARM  FORESTRY 

On  the  Length  of  Time  Allowed  to  Cut  the  Timber.— The 

shorter  the  time  allowed,  the  lower  the  stumpage  price  will 
be.  Purchasers  of  woodlots  will  often  buy  the  trees  and  hold 
them  indefinitely  without  cutting,  waiting  for  a  rise  in  the 
stumpage  price.  More  has  often  been  made  from  a  rise  in 
stumpage  price  than  from  the  profit  in  manufacturing  the 
material  into  lumber. 

In  every  region  and  locality  the  stumpage  price  is  deter- 
mined by  these  different  factors  and  is  a  more  or  less  fixed 
amount  for  the  same  kind  of  timber.  Stumpage  prices  do  not 
fluctuate  rapidly.  In  spite  of  changes  that  may  have  occurred, 
there  has  been  a  gradual  rise  in  the  value  of  standing  timber 
since  the  early  days,  and  the  price  will  undoubtedly  continue 
to  rise  as  timber  becomes  scarcer.  In  many  regions  the  valu- 
able timber  now  lies  in  the  farm  woodlot  and  its  value  is 
bound  to  increase  in  the  future.  No  woodlot  owner  should 
sell  his  timber  until  he  knows  that  he  is  getting  all  that  the 
timber  is  worth. 


HOW  TO  FIND  THE  STUMPAGE  VALUE  OF  TIMBER 

The  stumpage  value  is  found  by  subtracting  from  the  sell- 
ing price  of  the  manufactured  product,  the  cost  of  logging 
and  the  cost  of  manufacturing,  and  also  the  depreciation  on 
the  sawmill,  the  logging  outfit  and  equipment,  and  the 
profit.  The  profit  is  often  figured  at  25  per  cent  of  the  log- 
ging and  manufacturing  costs.  This  can  be  expressed  in  a 
formula : 

Stumpage  price— selling  price — (cost  of  logging-f- 

cost  of  manufacturing  -j-  depreciation)—  profit. 

On  a  portable  sawmill  operation  in  the  northern  Appala- 
chian Region  the  stumpage  value  was  figured  as  follows : 


Measuring  stacked  cordwood. 


MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT   167 

Bd.   Ft.  per  M. 

Cost  of  logging,  including  hauling  to  the  mill.  .   $  4.00 
Cost    of     manufacturing,     including    handling, 

hauling  to  cars  and  loading 8.00 

Profit  25  per  cent  of  costs 3.00 


Total  expenses  $15.00 

Selling  price  for  mill  run $20.00 

Total  expenses 1 5.00 


Stumpage  price $  5.00 


MARKETING   THE   PRODUCTS   OF   THE    WOODLOT 

The  problem  of  marketing  the  products  from  the  woodlot 
is  similar  in  many  respects  to  that  of  marketing  agricultural 
products  from  the  farm.  If  the  markets  are  good  it  is  a  simple 
matter,  if  not,  the  same  difficulties  are  met.  The  products 
are  not  ordinarily  sufficient  in  amount  to  attract  the  attention 
of  the  large  buyers,  and  owing  to  the  character  of  the  material 
much  of  it  being  of  comparatively  little  value  in  proportion 
to  its  weight,  it  cannot  be  shipped  far.  The  market  available 
to  the  woodlot  owner  is  usually  a  local  one,  and  the  demand 
is  soon  satisfied.  In  addition  to  this,  as  far  as  sawed  material 
is  concerned,  is  the  prejudice  against  the  product  of  the  port- 
able sawmill,  because  of  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  size,  thick- 
ness and  quality. 

Sawmill  men  are  able  to  overcome  many  of  the  difficulties 
met  by  the  woodlot  owner.  Buying  and  selling  the  products 
of  woodlots  is  a  business  with  them.  They  make  a  study  of 
the  market  conditions  and  know  all  the  users  of  wood  products 
and  the  wood-using  industries  within  striking  distance,  and 
have  a  knowledge  of  the  kinds  and  quality  of  material  each 
one  needs.  They  make  a  study  of  the  prices  offered  for  dif- 
ferent products  and  manufacture  the  material  accordingly, 


168  FARM  FORESTRY 

and  can  usually  sell  to  their  own  advantage.  Cutting  many 
tracts  in  the  same  region  they  can  store  the  material  until 
they  have  enough  to  make  a  sale  and  a  shipment  often  to  a 
distance.  They  can  sort  the  sawed  material  and  accumulate 
sufficient  amounts  in  different  grades  to  sell  for  special  pur- 
poses and  so  secure  a  much  greater  profit  than  if  they  sold 
the  mill  run  or  the  lumber  as  it  leaves  the  tail  of  the  mill, 
all  grades  and  kinds  mixed  in  together,  as  must  usually  be 
done  by  the  woodlot  owner.  Being  skilled  in  the  sawing  of 
lumber  and  the  care  and  adjustment  of  machinery,  they  can 
produce  as  uniform  and  as  well  manufactured  a  product  as 
the  larger  mills. 

Woodlot  owners  in  the  same  region  by  combining  their 
efforts  can  overcome  many  difficulties  in  regard  to  manufac- 
turing and  selling  their  products.  A  sawmill  can  be  purchased 
in  common  or  a  reliable  sawmill  man  can  be  induced  to  locate 
in  the  region.  The  cutting  of  the  trees  and  the  hauling  of 
the  material  to  the  mill  can  be  carried  on  under  a  competent 
"woods  boss,"  the  woodlot  owners  with  their  help  forming  the 
different  crews.  The  sawmill  man  should  be  an  expert  in 
studying  and  searching  out  the  best  markets  for  the  different 
products. 

Woodlot  owners  should  not  be  in  3  hurry  to  harvest  and 
market  their  timber.  They  should  know  before  selling  that 
they  are  getting  the  best  price  possible  for  all  the  different 
kinds  of  material  in  the  woodlot.  Trees  are  not  perishable 
material  like  many  farm  products  and  they  increase  in  value 
by  their  annual  growth.  In  addition  to  this  is  the  constant 
rise  in  the  value  of  the  stumpage.  Time  should  be  taken  to 
make  a  complete  study  of  the  various  markets,  the  require- 
ments of  each,  and  the  prices  paid  for  the  different  products. 
Trees  should  not  be  sold  when  the  market  is  down,  but  should 
be  held  for  more  favorable  conditions. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  products  of  the  woodlot.  They 
should  be  marketed  only  when  a  fair  price  can  be  obtained. 


MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WOODLOT  169 

The  sawed  products  can  be  graded  and  stacked  in  the  yard 
and  held  for  a  good  market.  Most  sawmill  operators  fail 
not  because  of  inability  to  manufacture  good  material,  but 
from  the  failure  to  secure  good  markets  and  a  profit  on  the 
material  sold.  A  lumber  operation  should  be  handled  only 
as  a  business.  The  plans  and  contract  should  be  drawn  up 
and  submitted  for  consideration  to  some  competent  authority. 
Information  in  regard  to  the  selling  of  timber  and  products 
from  the  woodlot  can  be  obtained  free  of  charge  from  the 
State  Forester  or  from  the  Forestry  Department  of  the  Agri- 
cultural College.  All  the  available  information  in  regard  to 
the  users  of  wood  products  should  be  obtained  from  these 
sources  and  also  from  the  United  States  Forest  Service, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

THE    CONTRACT    OR   AGREEMENT 

-Before  entering  into  an  agreement  for  the  sale  of  timber 
the  woodlot  owner  should  discuss  with  the  purchaser  all  the 
important  features  of  the  work  in  the  woods,  the  methods  to 
be  employed,  the  disposal  of  the  products,  and  the  financial 
side  of  the  operation.  Their  agreement  should  be  put  in  the 
form  of  a  contract  to  be  signed  by  both  parties.  Even  in  a 
small  sale  much  trouble  and  often  financial  loss  can  be  avoided 
by  putting  the  terms  in  writing. 

A  sample  form  of  timber  sale  contract  has  been  drawn 
up  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C., 
for  the  use  of  woodlot  owners.  This  can  be  secured  free  of 
charge.  It  covers  all  the  different  methods  of  selling  timber 
from  the  woodlot  and  puts  into  proper  form  the  different 
points  that  should  be  included  in  a  contract  for  the  proper 
carrying  out  of  the  operation  and  the  protection  of  the  future 
of  the  woodlot. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  CONTENTS  OF  LOGS  AND  TREES       > 

Units  for  Measuring  Wood. — The  Board  Foot. — The  board 
foot  is  a  board  i  foot  square  and  i  inch  thick.  It  is  the 
common  unit  for  buying  and  selling  lumber  in  Canada  and 
the  United  States.  It  is  also  used  for  measuring  the  amount 
of  lumber  that  can  be  sawed  from  logs  and  trees.  As  applied 
to  lumber  and  squared  timber  it  is  a  measure  of  the  solid 
contents.  If  a  board  contains  60  board  feet  it  means  that 
the  actual  contents  of  the  board  is  60  board  feet.  If  a  log 
is  said  to  contain  60  board  feet  it  means  that  60  board  feet 
can  be  sawed  out  of  the  log.  The  contents  in  board  feet 
of  lumber  and  squared  timbers  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
length  in  feet  by  the  width  in  feet,  by  the  thickness  in  inches. 
In  measuring  lumber  no  allowance  is  made  for  defects,  but 
the  material  is  classified  into  grades  according  to  the  number, 
size  and  character  of  the  defects.  With  inch  boards  the  con- 
tents in  board  measure  is  the  same  as  the  number  of  square 
feet  of  surface,  and  is  often  spoken  of  as  surface  measure. 
The  number  of  board  feet  that  can  be  sawed  from  logs  is 
shown  in  log  tables. 

Cord  Measure. — Firewood,  pulp  wood  and  other  material 
sawed  into  short  lengths  or  bolts,  as  excelsior  wood,  spool 
wood,  novelty  wood,  etc.,  are  usually  measured  by  the  cord. 
Cordwood  is  usually  cut  into  4-foot  lengths.  A  cord  of  such 
wood  will  be  a  stack  4  feet  high,  4  feet  wide  and  8  feet  long. 
It  will  contain  128  cubic  feet.  A  short  cord  is  one  in  which 
the  pieces  are  cut  shorter  than  4  feet.  Stove  wood  is  some- 
times cut  14  to  1 8  inches  long. 

170 


THE  CONTENTS  OF  BOGS  AND  TREES      171 

The  Relation  Between  Board  Feet  and  Cordzvood. — No 
definite  relation  exists  between  the  cord  and  the  number  of 
board  feet  it  contains.  The  number  will  vary  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  wood,  the  method  of  piling  used  and  other  factors. 
In  general  for  ordinary  sized  wood  a  cord  is  said  to  contain 
about  550  board  feet  of  wood. 

The  Cubic  Foot. — The  cubic  foot  has  never  come  into  gen- 
eral use  in  this  country  for  measuring  wood,  although  it  is 
the  best  unit  for  measuring  the  volume  of  logs,  for  it  gives 
the  entire  contents  of  the  logs.  It  is  being  used  at  the  present 
time  for  measuring  pencil  wood,  wagon  stock  and  other  valu- 
able hardwoods,  especially  imported  woods.  Pulpwood  is  fre- 
quently measured  by  the  cubic  foot.  In  many  countries  of 
Europe  and  in  the  Philippine  Islands  the  cubic  meter  is  the 
standard  measure  for  finding  the  contents  of  logs  and  timber. 
The  cubic  contents  of  trees  is  used  by  foresters  in  estimating 
the  contents  of  a  stand  of  timber  for  cordwood  and  in  scien- 
tific work. 

Linear  Measurement. — Many  products  of  the  woodlot  are 
measured  by  the  length  in  feet  instead  of  by  the  contents. 
Poles,  mine  props  and  piles  are  usually  measured  and  paid  for 
by  the  piece  or  by  linear  measurement.  Ties,  fence  posts  and 
many  other  products  are  often  bought  and  sold  by  the  piece 
according  to  size. 

Finding  the  Volume  of  Logs. — Cubic  Measure. — There  are 
two  methods  in  common  use  for  finding  the  contents  of 
iogs. 

In  one  method  the  log  is  considered  as  a  cylinder  with  a 
base  corresponding  to  the  diameter  at  the  middle  of  the  log. 
The  volume  is  found  by  measuring  the  diameter  at  the  middle 
of  the  log  accurately  and  finding  the  area  of  the  base  in  square 
feet.  This,  multiplied  by  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet,  will 
give  the  cubic  contents  of  the  log.  (Basal  area  tables  cor- 
responding to  different  diameters  will  be  found  in  the  appen- 
dix.) 


172  FARM  FORESTRY 

Expressed  as  a  formula  : 


in  which  V  is  the  volume  of  the  log  in  cubic  feet.  Br  is  the 
area  of  the  middle  cross-section  of  the  log  in  square  feet. 
L  is  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet. 

A  more  accurate  method,  but  requiring  one  more  measure- 
ment, is  to  average  the  basal  areas  of  the  small  and  large  ends 
of  the  log  and  then  multiply  by  the  length  of  the  log.  The 
average  diameters  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  log  are  meas- 
ured accurately  and  the  corresponding  basal  areas  in  square 
feet  are  found  from  the  basal  area  tables.  These  are  added 
together  and  divided  by  two  to  get  the  average  basal  area. 
The  result  is  multiplied  by  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet  tn 
get  the  cubic  contents  of  the  log. 

Expressed  as  a  formula: 


in  which  V  is  the  volume  of  the  log  in  cubic  feet.  B  arid  b 
are  the  areas  in  square  feet  corresponding  to  the  diameters 
of  the  two  ends  of  the  log.  L  is  the  length  of  the  log  in 
feet. 

Board  Measure.  —  The  number  of  board  feet  that  can  be 
sawed  from  logs  of  different  diameters  and  lengths  is  shown 
in  tables  called  log  scales  or  log  rules.  A  log  table  or  rule 
is  a  tabulated  statement  of  the  contents  in  board  feet  of  logs 
of  different  diameters  and  lengths.  Knowing  the  diameter  of 
the  small  end  of  a  log  inside  the  bark  and  the  length  of  the 
log,  the  number  of  board  feet  contained  in  the  log  can  be 
found  from  a  log  rule.  There  are  over  forty  such  rules  in 
common  use,  often  differing  widely  in  the  number  of  board 
feet  given  for  logs  of  the  same  size.  The  amount  of  lumber 
that  can  be  sawed  from  a  log  of  a  certain  size  is  not  definite. 


THE  CONTENTS  OF  LOGS  AND  TREES      173 

It  will  vary  with  many  factors,  such  as  the  thickness  of  the 
saw,  the  efficiency  of  the  machinery,  the  skill  of  the  sawyer, 
the  thickness  of  the  boards  sawed,  the  defects  in  the  logs  and 
others.  This  will  account  in  some  measure  for  the  many  rules 
in  existence. 

Log  rules  are  constructed  in  several  ways,  some  by  math- 
ematical formulae  some  by  diagrams  of  the  small  ends  of  logs, 
some  are  based  on  actual  experience  at  the  mill  in  sawing 
boards  from  logs,  and  others  by  correcting  existing  log  rules 
to  fit  local  conditions. 

The  following  log  rules  are  in  most  general  use  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  country: 

The  Scribner  Rule. — The  Scribner  rule  was  constructed 
by  the  use  of  diagrams.  It  is  the  oldest  rule  in  general  use. 
Circles  were  drawn  the  size  of  the  small  ends  of  logs  of  dif- 
ferent diameters  and  in  these  circles  the  inch  boards  that 
could  be  sawed  from  them  after  allowing  for  waste  in  sawing 
were  mapped  out.  From  these  the  number  of  board  feet 
that  could  be  sawed  from  logs  of  different  lengths  were  found. 
The  results  for  logs  of  different  diameters  and  lengths  were 
then  arranged  in  a  form  of  a  log  table. 

A  modification  of  this  rule,  called  the  Scribner  Decimal 
Rule,  has  been  made  by  dropping  the  unit  figures  and  round- 
ing the  values  to  the  nearest  tens.  This  is  the  log  rule  adopted 
by  the  United  States  Forest  Service  for  timber  sales  on  the 
National  Forests.  The  Scribner  Rule  is  said  to  give  very 
fair  results  for  logs  below  28  inches  in  diameter,  but  for  logs 
above  the  results  are  too  low. 

The  Doyle  Rule. — The  Doyle  Rule  is  based  on  the  follow- 
ing mathematical  formula:  Deduct  4  inches  from  the  diam- 
eter of  the  log  inside  the  bark  to  allow  for  slab,  square  one- 
quarter  of  the  remainder  and  multiply  this  result  by  the  length 
of  the  log  in  feet.  This  rule  gives  very  low  results  for  small 
logs,  and  above  36  inches  in  diameter  the  values  given  are  too 
large.  This  is  because  the  width  of  the  slab  removed  by  the 


174  FARM  FORESTRY 

formula  is  the  same  regardless  of  the  size  of  the  log.  Too 
much  allowance  is  made  for  small  logs  and  not  enough  for 
large  logs.  Yet  this  rule  is  in  more  general  use  throughout 
the  country  than  any  other.  The  mill  cut  will  often  overrun 
the  values  given  by  Doyle  Rule  by  25  per  cent. 

The  Doyle-Scribner  Rule. — A  combination  of  the  Doyle 
and  Scribner  Rules,  known  as  the  Doyle-Scribner  Rule,  is  in 
common  use  for  measuring  hardwoods.  In  this  rule  the  Figures 
of  the  Doyle  Rule  are  used  for  small  logs  under  28  inches 
in  diameter,  and  above  28  inches  the  Scribner  Rule  is  used. 
Since  the  Doyle  Rule  gives  low  results  for  small  logs  and 
the  Scribner  Rule  gives  low  results  for  large  logs,  this  rule 
is  evidently  unfair  to  the  one  selling  timber. 

The  International  Log  Rule. — Several  attempts  have  been 
made  to  construct  a  standard  log  rule  that  will  state  with  fair- 
ness to  both  buyer  and  seller  the  contents  of  logs.  Such  a 
log  rule  is  the  International  Rule,  which  is  based  on  a  mathe- 
matical formula  checked  by  actual  experience  in  sawing  out 
boards  from  logs.  Several  log  rules  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix. 

Considerable  confusion  often  arises  in  measuring  the  con- 
tents of  logs  through  the  use  of  different  log  rules  by  the  buyer 
and  seller.  The  log  rule  to  be  used  should  be  specified  in  the 
contract  to  be  drawn  up  for  the  sale  of  the  timber. 

Scaling  Logs. — The  measuring  of  logs  to  find  the  contents 
in  board  feet  by  means  of  a  log  rule  is  called  log  scaling. 
For  convenience  in  the  woods  the  log  rule  is  printed  on  a 
wooden  stick  about  4  feet  long,  called  a  scale  stick.  By  means 
of  the  scale  stick  placed  across  the  small  end  of  a  log  inside 
the  bark  the  width  rounded  to  the  nearest  inch  is  noted.  Oppo- 
site the  inch  mark  will  be  read  in  line  with  the  proper  length 
of  log  the  number  of  board  feet  or  the  scale  of  the  log. 

A  log  rule  is  constructed  to  give  the  contents  of  perfect 
logs  without  crook  or  other  defects.  If  defects  occur  in  logs 
the  scale  as  given  in  the  log  rule  must  be  discounted  to  allow 


•g-g 


THE  CONTENTS  OF  LOGS  AND  TREES      175 

for  them,  otherwise  the  values  will  be  too  high.  What  is 
wanted  in  scaling  logs  is  the  number  of  board  feet  that  can 
actually  be  sawed  out  of  the  logs.  No  rule  can  be  given  for 
deducting  for  defect  in  logs.  It  is  a  matter  of  judgment. 
If  it  is  believed  only  half  the  log  will  cut  sound  wood,  only 
half  the  scale  should  be  recorded.  Much  can  be  learned  as 
to  allowing  for  defects  by  watching  logs  sawed  at  the  mill, 
and  watching  the  number  of  board  feet  thrown  out  because 
of  a  certain  sized  defect.  Crook  is  often  allowed  for  by 
reducing  the  diameter  of  the  log  by  enough  to  square  up  the 
log. 

Rule  of  Thumb  for  Finding  the  Contents  of  Logs  in  Board 
Feet. — The  following  rule  of  thumb  is  a  very  simple  method 
of  determining  without  the  aid  of  a  log  rule  the  contents  of 
logs  in  board  feet.  For  logs  that  are  16  feet  in  length,  sub- 
tract 4  inches  from  the  diameter  of  the  small  end  inside  the 
bark  and  square  the  remainder.  It  gives  the  contents  in  board 
feet  of  logs  according  to  the  Doyle  Rule.  For  example,  if  a 
i6-foot  log  is  14  inches  in  diameter  the  rule  will  work  as  fol- 
lows :  Four  inches  subtracted  from  14  inches  leaves  10  inches, 
and  10  squared  gives  100  the  number  of  board  feet  in  the  log. 
If  a  log  is  12  feet  long,  or  any  length  other  than  16  feet,  apply 
the  rule  as  though  the  log  were  16  feet  long,  then  take  the  part 
of  the  scale  that  the  length  of  the  log  is  of  16.  If  the  log 
is  12  feet  long  three-quarters  of  the  scale  of  a  i6-foot  log 
of  that  diameter  is  used.  If  a  log  is  8  feet  long  one-half  the 
scale  is  taken. 

Finding  the  Volume  of  a  Tree. — The  Cubic  Contents. — 
The  usual  form  of  a  tree  is  a  paraboloid  or  a  cone  with  slightly 
bulging  sides.  The  only  way  to  find  the  actual  solid  contents 
of  an  entire  tree  would  be  by  displacement  of  water,  cutting 
the  tree  into  parts  and  placing  them  in  a  tub  of  water  and 
measuring  the  amount  of  water  in  cubic  feet  displaced  or 
that  runs  out.  It  would  be  almost  impossible  to  measure 
the  limbs  and  twigs  accurately  in  any  other  way.  Such  a 


176  FARM  FORESTRY 

high  degree  of  accuracy  is  not  necessary  in  measuring  a  stand- 
ing tree  for  purposes  of  estimating  the  contents.  When  the 
entire  tree  is  considered  as  a  paraboloid  it  means  that  if  the 
twigs  and  limbs  were  all  squeezed  up  together  they  would 
rarry  up  the  solid  trunk  of  the  tree  with  a  gradual  taper  to 
the  tip. 

If  the  solid  contents  of  a  cone  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  area  of  the  base  by  one- third  the  height,  then  the  volume 
of  the  tree,  which  is  a  little  larger  than  the  cone,  will  be  found 
by  multiplying  the  area  of  the  base  in  square  feet  measured 
at  breast  height  by  one-half  the  total  height  of  the  tree. 

Expressed  as  a  formula: 


in  which  B  is  the  area  of  the  base  of  the  tree  in  square  feet 
corresponding  to  the  diameter  measured  at  breast  height,  and 
H  is  the  total  height  of  the  tree. 

The  Volume  of  a  Standing  Tree  in  Board  Feet. — The 
volume  of  a  standing  tree  in  board  feet  can  be  found  by 
dividing  the  merchantable  trunk  of  the  tree  into  logs  by  the 
eye,  estimating  the  top  diameters  inside  the  bark  of  each 
log  and  finding  the  board  feet  from  a  log  table  or  by  applying 
the  rule  of  thumb  for  board  feet  in  logs.  The  result  of  the 
different  logs  added  together  will  give  the  estimate  in  board 
feet  in  the  tree. 

A  rule  of  thumb  well  known  among  timber  estimators  for 
finding  the  volume  of  the  merchantable  length  of  trees  in 
board  feet  is  to  subtract  60  from  the  square  of  the  estimated 
diameter  inside  the  bark  at  the  middle  of  the  merchantable 
length  of  the  tree  and  multiply  the  remainder  by  .8.  The 
result  will  be  the  number  of  board  feet  in  the  average  i6-foot 
log  in  the  tree.  This  number  is  then  multiplied  by  the  number 


THE  CONTENTS  OF  LOGS  AND  TREES      177 

of   i6-foot  logs  in  the  tree,  which  will   give  the  board-foot 
contents  in  the  tree. 

Volume  Tables. — Foresters  make  use  of  volume  tables  in 
estimating  large  tracts  of  timber.  These  give  at  once  the 
contents  of  a  tree  either  in  board  feet  or  in  cubic  feet  or  other 
unit  when  the  height  and  diameter  of  the  tree  are  known. 
The  diameter  is  always  measured  at  breast  height  and  is  the 
average  of  the  largest  and  smallest  diameters  at  that  point 
if  the  tree  is  not  round.  The  height  may  either  be  the  total 
height  of  the  tree  or  the  merchantable  length  of  the  trunk. 
Each  volume  table  will  specify  which  to  use.  The  simplest 
form  of  volume  table  is  based  on  diameter  alone.  Volume 
tables  give  average  results,  for  the  figures  in  volume  tables 
are  found  by  averaging  together  the  volumes  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  trees  of  the  same  height  and  diameter  that  have  been 
cut  down  and  measured.  They  are  intended  for  estimating 
only  a  large  number  of  trees.  They  are  not  to  be  used  for 
measuring  the  contents  of  an  individual  tree.  Volume  tables 
give  very  accurate  results  when  used  for  estimating  large 
stands  of  timber. 

Measuring  the  Diameters  of  Trees. — The  diameters  of 
trees  are  always  measured  at  breast  height  or  four  and  a  half 
feet  above  the  ground.  This  point  will  be  well  above  the  flare 
or  swell  usually  found  at  the  base  of  a  tree.  The  trunks  of 
most  trees  are  not  perfectly  round  in  cross-section,  so  that 
two  measurements  are  always  taken  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  and  the  average  diameter  used. 

The  instrument  used  for  measuring  diameters  of  trees 
is  a  wooden  calipers.  These  can  be  purchased  for  a  few  dol- 
lars. For  estimating  a  small  woodlot  two  carpenter's  squares 
placed  end  for  end  and  the  arms  against  the  tree  will  measure 
the  diameter  with  great  accuracy.  Wooden  calipers  can  easily 
be  made. 

Measuring  the  Heights  of  Trees. — The  heights  of  trees  are 
measured  by  instruments  called  hypsometers.  These  are  of 


178 


FARM  FORESTRY 


several  forms  and  are  known  by  different  names.  A  simple 
one  is  the  clinometer,  which  when  sighted  at  the  tip  of  a  tree 
from  a  distance  of  100  feet  will  read  directly  the  height  of 
the  tree. 

There  are  several  methods  for  finding  the  heights  of  trees 
without  instruments.  One  of  the  simplest  methods  is  to  meas- 
ure the  length  of  the  shadow  cast  by  the  tree  and  the  length 
of  the  shadow  cast  by  a  lo-foot  pole  set  perpendicularly  in 
the  ground.  When  the  length  of  the  shadow  cast  by  the  tree 


is  multiplied  by  the  length  of  the  pole  and  the  product  divided 
by  the  length  of  the  shadow  cast  by  the  pole  the  result  will 
be  the  height  of  the  tree.  The  heights  of  trees  can  be  found 
in  this  way  only  when  they  stand  in  the  open. 

A  staff  about  4  feet  long,  one  end  held  to  the  eye  and 
grasped  at  arm's  length  and  then  held  vertically  in  front  of 
the  eye,  can  be  used  in  measuring  the  height  of  trees.  A  posi- 
tion is  found  out  from  the  base  of  the  tree  where  the  top  of 
the  tree  will  be  seen  just  over  the  top  of  the  pole  and  the  base 
of  the  tree  over  the  hand.  The  distance  the  observer  is  then 
away  from  the  tree  will  be  the  height  of  the  tree. 


THE  CONTENTS  OF  LOGS  AND  TREES      179 

The  height  of  a  tree  can  also  be  found  by  the  use  of  two 
staffs.  The  observer  moves  away  from  the  tree  about  50  to 
75  feet  until  he  can  see  the  top  and  base  of  the  tree.  A  staff 
6  to  8  feet  high  is  then  set  upright  at  this  point  (x  in  dia- 
gram). A  few  feet  farther  away  from  the  tree  a  second  staff 
about  4  feet  in  height  is  set  at  (3;).  The  observer  now  looks 
from  the  top  of  the  staff  (3;)  at  A  across  the  first  upright 
staff  (.r)  to  the  top  of  the  tree  (B)  and  an  assistant  marks 
on  the  staff  (#)  the  point  (D)  where  this  line  crosses.  The 
observer  now  looks  from  (A)  to  the  bottom  of  the  tree  and 
the  assistant  marks  on  the  staff  (x)  the  point  (E)  where  this 
line  crosses. 

The  distance  AC  or  from  the  eye  of  the  observer  to  the 
foot  of  the  tree  multiplied  by  DE  the  length  marked  on  the 
staff  (#)  and  this  product  divided  by  AE,  the  distance  from 
the  eye  of  the  observer  to  the  staff  (x),  will  give  the  height 
of  the  tree. 

TT     -*      1    i.         r      L  T>/- 

Height  of  tree:          BC  = 


(For  AC  the  distance  yc  on  the  ground  can  be  measured, 
and  for  AE  the  distance  yx  on  the  ground  can  be  measured.) 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

ESTIMATING  THE  TREES  IN  THE  WOODLOT  FOR 
BOARD  FEET  AND  FOR  CORDWOOD 

For  many  years  it  was  thought  impossible  to  learn  how 
to  estimate  the  contents  of  standing  trees  without  years  of 
practical  experience  in  the  woods.  The  early  estimators  were 
men  who  had  first  worked  in  timber  helping  to  cut  down  trees 
and  saw  them  into  logs.  Through  years  of  observation  of 
tracts  of  timber  before  they  were  cut  and  a  subsequent  knowl- 
edge of  the  amount  of  lumber  each  tract  sawed  out  at  the 
mill,  their  judgment  became  trained  so  that  they  were  able 
to  guess  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  as  to  the  contents  of 
the  timber  standing  on  a  particular  tract.  These  men  were 
sometimes  called  timber  lookers,  for  about  all  they  did  was 
to  pass  through  the  timber  and  look  it  over  and  then  to  state 
the  amount  of  lumber  or  cordwood  that  it  would  produce. 
They  were  often  also  called  timber  cruisers,  for  they  made 
their  way  about  through  the  timber  by  means  of  a  compass, 
as  a  ship  is  cruised  through  the  water.  Some  of  these  early 
timber  estimators  were  held  in  high  repute  for  their  ability 
to  state  with  considerable  accuracy  the  contents  of  forests. 
But  usually  the  results  were  far  from  being  right.  These 
early  methods  were  good  enough  when  standing  timber  had 
but  little  value  and  was  often  sold  by  the  acre.  When  timber 
became  scarce  and  the  stumpage  value  had  risen  so  that  even 
individual  trees  in  the  woods  had  a  value,  the  old  methods 
of  timber  estimating  were  no  longer  acceptable.  In  purchas- 
ing timber  men  no  longer  cared  to  risk  their  money  on  a 
guess  by  a  timber  looker.  Methods  of  estimating  having  some 

180 


ESTIMATING  THE  TREES  IN  THE  WOODLOT       181 

scientific  basis  were  then  devised.  These  give  with  assurance 
when  carefully  carried  out  the  contents  of  stands  of  timber 
usually  within  at  least  5  per  cent  to  10  per  cent  of  the  actual 
amount.  Most  of  these  methods  can  be  used  without  previous 
experience  in  the  woods. 

In  estimating  timber  no  effort  is  made  to  measure  the  trees 
exactly.  This  could  be  done  only  at  great  expense  by  cutting 
the  trees  down  or  climbing  into  them.  An  estimate,  not  the 
exact  contents  of  the  trees  is  desired.  A  timber  estimate  is 
made  usually  to  give  a  basis  for  determining  the  stumpage 
price  or  the  value  of  the  standing  timber  and  for  figuring 
on  the  best  method  of  cutting  the  trees  and  getting  the  logs 
out  of  the  woods.  Settlement  for  the  logs  cut  is  usually  made 
by  measuring  the  actual  amount  of  material  removed  from  the 
woodlot. 

There  are  many  methods  of  timber  estimating  in  use  at 
the  present  time.  Each  timber  estimator  chooses  the  method  best 
suited  to  the  timber,  the  object  of  the  estimate,  and  the  time  and 
money  at  his  disposal.  These  methods  will  be  found  described 
in  books  on  Forest  Mensuration  and  in  books  on  General 
Forestry,  a  list  of  which  is  given  in  the  Appendix.  From 
these  many  methods  a  few  have  been  selected  which  are  simple 
in  theory  and  easy  to  apply,  and  which  can  easily  be  carried 
out  by  the  farmer  in  the  woodlot.  Although  these  methods 
are  simple  and  easily  learned  they  are  among  the  most  accu- 
rate known.  Where  carried  out  skillfully  and  carefully  they 
will  give  with  considerable  certainty  the  contents  of  the  timber. 

Value  of  Timber  Estimating  to  the  Farmer. — Fvery  wood- 
lot  owner  should  be  able  to  estimate  the  contents  of  the  trees 
in  his  woodlot.  He  should  know  how  much  lumber  the  trees 
will  produce  when  sawed  and  also  how  many  cords  of  wood 
or  how  many  poles,  ties  and  other  products.  Without  such 
knowledge  in  selling  his  product  he  usually  is  dependent  on 
guess  work  or  on  the  estimate  made  by  the  purchaser.  A 
knowledge  of  the  forest  capital  contained  in  his  woodlot  will 


182  FARM  FORESTRY 

enable  him  to  figure  the  amount  that  he  can  cut  safely  each 
year  from  the  woodlot. 

ESTIMATING  A  SMALL  WOODLOT  FOR  LUMBER  IN  BOARD  FEET 

In  estimating  a  woodlot  for  board  feet  only  that  portion 
of  each  tree  is  considered  that  will  make  saw  logs.  The  tops 
and  limbs  can,  of  course,  be  used  for  cordwood  or  other  pur- 
poses. What  is  desired  is  a  knowledge  of  how  many  board 
feet  of  boards  can  be  sawed  from  the  sawlogs  contained  in 
the  trees.  The  number  of  ties,  posts  and  other  products,  in 
addition  to  the  sawlogs,  can  of  course  be  determined  at  the 
same  time  the  estimate  is  made  for  board  feet  if  desired. 

In  estimating  a  small  woodlot  for  board  feet  each  tree  is 
considered  by  itself,  and  when  it  has  been  estimated  it  should 
be  marked  or  chalked  in  some  way,  so  that  it  will  not  be 
measured  again.  The  standing  tree  to  be  estimated  is  divided 
into  logs  by  the  eye  into  even  foot  lengths,  and  into  1 6-foot 
lengths  as  far  as  possible.  The  top  of  the  first  i6-foot  log, 
or  butt  log,  can  easily  be  found  by  using  a  lo-foot  pole.  When 
held  by  an  assistant  6  feet  above  the  ground,  or  the  top  of 
the  stump,  the  top  of  the  pole  will  indicate  where  the  first 
i6-foot  log  will  end.  The  lengths  of  the  logs  above  can  be 
estimated  by  the  eye  with  considerable  accuracy  when  stand- 
ing about  50  to  75  feet  from  the  tree.  In  this  way  the  number 
of  logs  that  can  be  cut  from  each  tree  and  their  lengths  can 
be  found.  The  diameter  of  the  small  end  of  each  log  inside 
the  bark  must  be  known  as  well  as  the  length.  The  diameter 
of  the  butt  lot  can  be  measured  accurately  by  nailing  a  cross- 
piece  marked  plainly  in  inches  on  the  upper  end  of  the  lo-foot 
pole.  When  held  by  the  assistant  so  that  the  cross-piece  is 
16  feet  above  the  stump,  the  observer  can  readily  count  the 
number  of  inches  in  diameter  of  the  top  of  the  log.  The 
measurement  must  be  inside  the  bark.  Very  few  trees  except 
old  trees  have  a  bark  16  feet  above  the  stump  that  is  more 


ESTIMATING  THE  TREES  IN  THE  WOODLOT       183 

than  a  half  inch  thick.  For  most  trees  an  inch  should  be  sub- 
tracted from  the  diameter  outside  the  bark  to  allow  for  the 
thickness  of  the  bark.  The  diameters  inside  the  bark  at  the 
tops  of  the  logs  above  the  butt  log  must  be  estimated  by  the 
eye.  The  upper  logs  are  much  smaller  usually  than  the  butt 
log.  The  first  log  or  butt  log  in  a  tree  is  the  important  log 
in  estimating  and  will  be  found  to  contain  a  much  larger 
amount  of  board  feet  than  any  log  above.  If  the  diameter 
of  the  butt  log  is  measured  accurately  the  diameters  of  the 
upper  logs  can  safely  be  estimated  by  the  eye.  A  knowledge 
of  the  diameters  of  upper  logs  as  compared  with  butt  logs 
can  be  obained  by  measuring  trees  that  have  been  cut  or  blown 
down  by  the  wind. 

When  the  length  and  top  diameter  of  a  log  is  known  its 
contents  in  board  feet  can  be  found  from  a  log  table  or  by 
the  simple  rule  of  thumb  already  described:  for  logs  that  are 
1 6  feet  in  length,  if  4  inches  are  subtracted  from  the  top  diam- 
eter and  the  result  squared  it  will  give  the  number  of  board 
feet  in  the  log  according  to  the  Doyle  Rule,  and  for  logs  of 
other  than  1 6- foot  lengths  they  are  figured  as  though  16  feet 
long  and  the  part  of  the  scale  taken  that  the  length  of  the 
log  is  of  1 6  feet. 

In  estimating  the  contents  of  each  log  in  board  feet  in  this 
way  it  should  be  noted  whether  the  logs  are  perfect  or  not. 
Log  rules  and  the  rule  of  thumb  mentioned  give  results  for 
perfect  logs.  Most  logs  have  imperfections  and  allowance 
must  be  made  for  them.  No  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  doing 
this,  but  any  one  with  good  judgment  can  make  a  fairly  accu- 
rate deduction. 

In  this  way  the  board  feet  should  be  found  for  each  log 
in  the  trees  in  the  woodlot.  The  total  board  feet  will  be  the 
estimate  for  the  tract.  In  tallying  the  board  feet  for  the  logs 
those  that  are  of  the  same  species  of  trees  can  be  kept  together 
so  that  the  final  result  will  give  an  estimate  for  each  kind  of 
wood. 


184 


FARM  FORESTRY 


The  following  form  can  be  used  for  recording  the  data 
for  each  log  estimated.  A  separate  form  can  be  made  out 
for  each  species,  or  a  column  can  be  added  to  indicate  the 
species : 


Species. 

Diameter 
of  log. 

Length 
of  log. 

Condition    of    log. 
Defects,      crook, 
etc.     Amount  to 
deduct. 

Board-feet  in  log  after 
allowing  for  defects. 

At  the  same  time  the  logs  are  being  recorded  in  each  tree, 
the  estimator,  if  it  is  desired,  can  record  the  number  and 
sizes  of  ties,  or  fence  posts  or  other  products  that  are  con- 
tained in  the  trees,  and  also  the  number  of  poles  and  their 
lengths.  A  complete  estimate  should  give  the  amount  and 
kinds  of  all  material  that  can  be  cut  from  the  woodlot. 


ESTIMATING  A  LARGE  WOODLOT  FOR  BOARD  FEET 

To  estimate  each  tree  in  a  large  woodlot  in  this  way  would 
require  a  great  deal  of  time  and  labor.  It  is  possible  to  pick 
out  several  sample  acres  that  are  representative  of  the  entire 
woodlot  if  the  trees  are  fairly  uniform,  .and  find  the  average 
board  feet  per  acre.  Then  by  multiplying  by  the  number  of 
acres  in  the  woodlot  an  estimate  for  the  entire  woodlot  will 
be  obtained.  (A  simple  method  of  rinding  the  number  of  acres 
in  a  woodlot  is  described  in  the  Appendix.)  Great  care  and 
judgment  must  be  used  in  selecting  the  sample  acres  to  be 
estimated.  They  should  neither  be  located  in  the  best  portion 
of  the  timber  nor  in  the  poorest.  The  sample  acres  should  be 
average  acres.  Not  less  than  4  or  5  acre  plots  should  be 
estimated  for  a  2O-acre  woodlot  to  secure  a  good  result.  The 
number  of  board  feet  on  all  the  sample  plots  estimated  added 
together  and  then  divided  by  the  number  of  sample  acres 
measured  will  give  the  average  number  of  board  feet  per 
acre.  Square  acre  plots  can  be  laid  out  208  feet  on  a  side. 


ESTIMATING  THE  TREES  IN  THE  WOODLOT       185 

Smaller  plots  can  be  used  where  the  timber  is  very  uniform. 
A  square  half -acre  plot  measures  147  feet  on  a  side  and  a 
quarter-acre  plot  104  feet  on  a  side. 

Circular  plots  can  also  be  used.  They  are  laid  out  more 
quickly  than  square  plots.  A  circular  plot  covering  a  quarter- 
acre  in  extent  will  have  a  radius  of  59  feet.  This  will  be 
the  most  practical  size  of  plot  to  use.  Choosing  a  certain  tree 
for  the  center  of  the  circular  plot  or  setting  a  stake,  the  radius 
distance  is  measured  from  the  center  out  in  several  directions. 
Small  pieces  of  paper  fastened  in  the  bark  of  trees  will  help 
to  indicate  the  boundary  line.  Eight  or  ten  such  measurements 
made  from  the  center  and  well  distributed  about  the  circle  will 
mark  the  line  sufficiently  for  the  estimate.  Sometimes  but  a 
single  sample  plot  is  used  for  estimating  an  ordinary  wood- 
lot,  but  usually  the  estimates  on  several  such  sample  plots 
are  averaged  together.  These  plots  can  be  laid  off  here  and 
there  in  timber  that  appears  to  represent  the  average  of  the 
stand,  or  they  can  be  laid  out  at  regular  intervals  throughout 
the  woodlot,  so  that  when  averaged  together  they  will  give 
an  average  of  the  entire  woodlot. 

The  process  of  estimating  the  trees  on  these  sample  acres 
can  be  the  same  as  for  the  method  described  for  the  small 
woodlot.  Each  tree  on  a  sample  acre  is  estimated  by  itself, 
divided  into  logs,  and  the  number  of  board  feet  in  each  log 
found  from  a  log  .table  or  by  the  rule  of  thumb.  Care  must 
be  taken  as  before  in  making  allowance  for  defects  in  the  logs 
or  the  estimate  will  be  too  high. 

Where  a  quick  estimate  is  wanted  the  estimator  can,  after 
sizing  up  the  trees  on  the  plot,  pick  out  a  tree  by  eye  that  he 
believes  to  be  the  average  sized  tree  of  all  the  merchant- 
able trees  on  the  plot.  The  contents  of  this  tree  can  easily 
be  figured,  and  when  multiplied  by  the  number  of  trees  on 
the  plot  the  product  will  be  the  estimate  for  the  plot.  The 
result  will  be  more  accurate  if  instead  of  one  average  tree 
several  are  selected,  and  the  contents  of  the  average  tree  found 


186  FAEM  FORESTRY 

by  averaging  together  the  contents  of  all  of  them.  The  accu- 
racy of  the  estimate  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  skill  used 
in  picking  out  the  average  trees. 

With  very  large  tracts  of  timber  volume  tables  are  used 
instead  of  log  tables.  These  give  the  contents  of  trees  in  board 
feet  when  their  heights  and  diameters  are  known.  All  the 
trees  on  the  tract  can  be  estimated  or  only  those  on  sample 
acre  plots  or  on  measured  strips  run  in  parallel  directions 
across  the  tract.  Volume  tables  for  several  species  will  be 
found  in  the  Appendix.  Many  others  are  given  in  the  Wood- 
men's Handbook,  Bulletin  36,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  and  in 
books  relating  to  general  forestry. 

ESTIMATING   A   SMALL    WOODLOT    FOR   CORDWOOD 

In  estimating  a  small  woodlot  for  cordwood  each  tree  is 
estimated  by  itself,  as  in  the  case  with  board  feet.  When  a 
tree  has  been  estimated  it  should  be  marked  in  some  way 
so  that  it  will  not  be  considered  a  second  time.  If  all  the 
trees  are  marked  on  the  same  side  it  will  be  easier  to  keep 
track  of  them. 

To  obtain  the  cords  of  wood  in  a  woodlot  the  cubic  feet 
contained  in  all  the  trees  are  first  found.  The  total  cubic 
feet  in  the  trees  divided  by  90,  the  average  number  of  cubic 
feet  of  solid  wood  in  a  cord  of  wood,  will  give  the  estimate 
of  the  number  of  cords  of  wood  in  the  woodlot. 

The  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  tree  including  the  larger 
branches  is  found,  as  already  explained,  by  considering  the 
entire  tree  as  a  cone  with  slightly  bulging  sides  and  finding 
the  volume  in  cubic  feet  by  multiplying  the  basal  area  in 
square  feet  corresponding  to  the  diameter  of  the  tree  measured 
at  breast  height  by  one-half  the  total  height  of  the  tree  in  feet. 

The  diameters  are  measured  accurately  to  tenths  of  inches 
outside  the  bark,  for  the  whole  tree  is  used  for  cordwood.  If 
a  tree  is  not  perfectly  round  the  average  of  the  largest  and 


Forestry  students  estimating  the  contents  of  the  trees  in  a  very  dense 

stand  of  pine. 


ESTIMATING  THE  TEEES  IN  THE  WOODLOT       187 

smallest  diameters  is  taken.  The  corresponding  basal  areas 
in  square  feet  are  found  from  the  basal  area  table.  The  total 
height  of  each  tree  is  found  by  the  use  of  a  hypsometer  or 
by  one  of  the  other  methods  described  in  a  previous  chapter. 
The  data  obtained  for  the  different  trees  can  be  recorded 
in  a  table  as  follows : 


Diameter    of    tree    at 
breast-height  in   in- 
ches and  tenths. 

Total  height  of 
tree  in  feet. 

Basal  area  in  square 
feet  from  basal  area 
table. 

Number  of  cu- 
bic  feet   in 
tree. 

A  different  form  can  be  made  out  for  each  species  of  tree 
if  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  species  separate  or  another  column 
can  be  added  to  indicate  this.  The  total  cubic  feet  in  all  the 
trees  added  together  and  this  result  divided  by  90  will  give 
the  estimate  for  the  woodlot. 

ESTIMATING    A    LARGE    WOODLOT    FOR    CORD  WOOD 

In  a  large  woodlot  instead  of  estimating  each  tree  in  the 
woodlot,  which  would  be  a  very  long  operation,  sample  acre 
plots  as  described  for  estimating  for  board  feet  can  be  laid 
off  in  the  woodlot  and  the  average  number  of  cords  per  acre 
on  the  woodlot  obtained.  This  multiplied  by  the  number  of 
acres  in  the  woodlot  will  give  the  estimate  for  the  entire  tract. 
Square  sample  acre  plots  or  circular  plots  can  be  laid  off  in  the 
woodlot  located  in  timber  that  will  be  an  average  of  the  timber 
in  the  woodlot,  and  each  plot  estimated  by  itself  and  the  aver- 
age for  the  woodlot  obtained. 

Volume  tables  can  also  be  used  in  estimating  a  large  wood- 
lot  for  cordwood.  Knowing  the  diameters  and  heights  of 
trees  the  contents  can  be  found  from  prepared  volume  tables. 
These  give  the  contents  of  trees  in  cubic  feet  and  sometimes 
in  cords  of  wood. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  DIFFERENT  PROPERTIES  OF  WOODS 

As  we  have  already  learned,  wood  is  not  simple  in  its 
structure,  but  is  made  up  of  many  very  small  cells.  The 
cells  differ  in  different  woods  and  even  in  the  same  wood 
there  may  be  several  kinds  of  cells  each  serving  a  different 
purpose.  The  different  kinds  and  arrangements  of  cells  give 
rise  to  the  different  properties  in  woods.  The  reason  why  one 
wood  is  soft  and  another  hard,  or  why  one  wood  is  strong 
and  another  weak  is  because  each  has  a  different  structure. 
Often  in  the  same  kind  of  tree  the  wood  will  vary  in  its  prop- 
erties when  grown  in  different  situations  and  when  grown  at 
different  rates.  Even  in  the  same  tree  the  properties  of  the 
wood  will  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  stem.  The  heartwood 
will  have  different  properties  from  the  sapwood  and  the 
wood  of  the  butt  log  from  the  wood  of  the  top  logs,  the  wood 
from  the  quickly  grown  sapling  of  the  abandoned  field  from 
that  of  the  slowly  grown  forest  tree.  Even  the  manner  in 
which  the  wood  was  sawed  from  the  log  and  the  method  of 
drying  and  seasoning  will  influence  the  behavior  and  quality 
of  the  wood.  However,  these  differences  in  the  same  kind  of 
wood  are  not  very  pronounced. 

In  the  selection  of  a  wood  for  a  particular  purpose  its  prop- 
erties must  be  known.  Woods  often  bring  a  high  price  because 
of  their  adaptability  for  some  special  use  and  for  which  no 
other  wood  will  serve  the  purpose  as  well.  There  are  no 
trees  that  produce  worthless  wood.  Even  some  of  the  so-called 
weed  trees  in  the  woodlot,  such  as  dogwood  and  ironwood, 
have  special  uses  for  which  they  are  of  value. 

188 


THE  DIFFERENT  PROPERTIES  OF  WOODS         189 

For  the  ordinary  uses  of  woods  it  is  seldom  that  fine  dis- 
tinctions are  made.  There  are  many  woods  that  can  he  used 
for  construction  purposes,  such  as  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  fir 
and  cottonwood ;  nearly  any  hardwood  will  make  strong  and 
serviceable  furniture;  fence  posts  are  used  of  any  of  our  more 
durable  woods.  Many  wood-using  industries,  on  the  other 
hand,  demand  woods  that  have  special  properties  that  fit  them 
for  their  particular  purpose,  such  as  for  pencils,  musical  in- 
struments, aeroplanes,  shuttles,  etc.  In  this  case,  where  defi- 
nite qualities  are  demanded,  a  special  inspection  of  each  stick 
must  be  made. 

It  is  not  on  any  one  quality  that  the  value  of  a  wood  for 
use  depends,  but  often  on  a  combination  of  many  qualities. 
For  the  use  of  the  carpenter  and  builder  a  wood  that  is  soft 
to  work  and  to  nail  and  fairly  stiff  and  that  is  abundant  ar.d 
cheap  is  desired,  a  combination  found  in  the  coniferous  woods. 
The  furniture  maker  demands  a  wood  that  is  strong,  hard  and 
tough,  that  will  not  dent  easily,  that  will  take  a  high  polish, 
often  of  good  color  and  grain,  and  that  will  not  warp  and 
twist  when  once  in  place.  For  the  carriage  builder  a  wood 
must  be  strong,  hard  and  elastic.  It  must  have  a  long  fiber 
to  give  toughness  and  strength,  and  for  spokes  must  be  evenly 
and  easily  split.  Ability  to  resist  shocks  and  to  hold  spikes 
are  demanded  for  woods  for  railroad  ties,  and  a  durable, 
light,  soft  wood  for  poles.  Often  the  color  of  wood  or  its 
odor  will  give  it  a  special  value,  provided  it  has  the  other 
qualities  requisite  as  for  some  kinds  of  furniture,  interior 
trim  and  novelties.  The  quality  of  responding  to  and  enforc- 
ing a  musical  note  gives  some  kinds  of  wood  a  value  for 
musical  instruments. 

It  is  only  within  recent  years  that  a  systematic  study  has 
been  made  of  the  properties  of  different  woods  and  their  fit- 
ness for  special  purposes.  The  U.  S.  Forest  Service  has  es- 
tablished a  Woods  Products  Laboratory  at  Madison,  Wiscon- 
sin, where  woods  are  tested  for  their  properties  and  the 


190  FARM  FORESTRY 

value  of  woods  for  different  purposes  determined.  Formerly 
the  knowledge  had  of  woods  came  from  their  use  alone  and 
often  erroneous  ideas  in  regard  to  woods  wrere  held,  as  for 
example,  the  idea  that  the  heartwood  of  hickory  was  inferior 
to  the  sapwood  for  use  for  making  wagon  spokes.  Many 
woods  have  been  found  to  be  adapted  for  different  uses  that 
were  formerly  considered  worthless,  and  many  new  uses  have 
been  found  for  our  common  woods. 

THE  DIFFERENT   PROPERTIES   OF    WOODS 

Weight,  hardness,  strength,  durability,  elasticity,  tough- 
ness, heat  production,  color,  odor  and  taste  are  some  of  the 
properties  of  woods  that  make  them  valuable  for  use. 

Weight. — The  weight  of  different  woods  varies  greatly. 
Cork  oak  of  the  Southern  swamps  is  lighter  than  cork,  weigh- 
ing not  more  than  one-fifth  as  much  as  water.  Ironwood 
weighs  a  third  more  than  water.  The  wood  substance  itself 
is  heavier  than  water,  weighing  one  and  one-half  times  as 
much.  In  the  form  of  wood,  however,  because  of  the  large 
amount  of  air  enclosed  in  the  cells,  the  weight  of  a  piece  of 
wood  is  usually  much  less  than  the  weight  of  the  same  volume 
of  water.  Most  of  our  commercial  woods  when  dry  weigh  less 
than  water,  weighing  from  one-half  to  three- fourths  as  much. 
The  weight  of  wood  depends  on  the  wood  substance  itself  and 
the  amount  of  water  contained.  Only  a  few  of  our  woods 
will  float  when  first  cut.  Most  coniferous  woods  will  float 
when  green  and  a  few  of  the  lightest  hardwoods,  like  cotton- 
wood.  This  often  enables  them  to  be  floated  or  driven  down 
streams  to  the  sawmill.  All  woods  weigh  much  lighter  when 
dry  and  seasoned  than  when  green  and  full  of  water.  Some 
woods  lose  over  half  their  weight  in  drying. 

Woods  show  a  great  variation  in  density,  even  in  the  same 
species  of  tree  and  also  from  the  same  tree.  This  variation 
depends  on  the  rate  of  growth,  quality  of  the  locality  in  which 
the  tree  was  grown,  age  of  the  tree,  the  part  of  the  tree  from 


THE  DIFFERENT  PROPERTIES  OF  WOODS        191 


which  the  wood  was  cut,  and  the  amount  of  resinous  material 
in  the  cell. 

WEIGHTS 

TABLE  SHOWING  RELATIVE  WEIGHTS  or  COMMON  WOODS 


Very  heavy 
woods. 

Heavy  Woods. 

Medium  Weight. 

Light  Woods. 

Very  Light 
Woods. 

Hickory 

Ash 

Western  pine 

Red  pine 

White  pine 

Oak 

Elm 

Pitch  pine 

Cypress 

Spruce 

Persimmon 

Cherry 

Sweet  gum 

Hemlock 

Fir 

Osage  orange 

Birch 

Soft  maple 

Chestnut 

Cedar 

Black  locust 

Beech 

Sycamore 

Butternut 

Poplar 

Blue  beech 

Walnut 

Sassafras 

Tulip 

Willow 

Sour  gum 

Catalpa 

Honey  locust 

Buckeye 

Tamarack 

Hardness. — Hardness  is  resistance  offered  by  wood  to  hav- 
ing the  fibers  pushed  apart  or  indented.  It  depends  principally 
on  the  density  of  the  wood.  Woods  having  cells  that  have 
thick  walls  as  in  hickory  are  harder  than  those  whose  cell 
walls  are  thin  as  in  pine.  Hardness  is  a  property  essential 
in  furniture,  so  that  it  will  not  become  indented  easily  by 
blows.  A  floor  should  be  hard  as  well  as  strong  for  the  same 

TABLE  SHOWING  HARDNESS  OF  THE  COMMON  WOODS 


Very  Hard  Woods. 

Medium  Hard  Woods. 

Soft  Woods. 

Very  Soft 
Woods. 

Hickory 

Ash 

Chestnut 

White  pine 

Dogwood 

Oak 

Tulip  poplar 

Willow 

Ironwood 

Elm 

Sweet  gum 

Cedar 

Sugar  Maple 

Beech 

Southern  and 

Redwood 

Sycamore 

Cherry 

Western  yellow 

Black  locust 

Birch 

pine 

Persimmon 

Blue  beech 

Larch 

Osage  orange 

Honey  locust 

Bass  wood 

Soft  maple 

Hemlock 

Holly 

Cottonwood 

Spruce 

Fir 

192  FARM  FORESTRY 

reason.  Strong  woods  are  usually  hard  woods,  and  soft 
woods  do  not  have  much  strength.  Heavy  wood  is  harder 
than  light  wood,  especially  is  this  true  in  the  same  kind  of 
wood.  The  wood  of  the  butt  log  is  harder  than  that  of  the 
upper  logs,  the  dark  summer  wood  of  the  annual  ring  is 
harder  than  the  light  colored  spring  wood. 

Durability. — Different  kinds  of  woods  vary  in  their  dura- 
bility or  the  resistance  offered  to  decay  when  subjected  to 
moist  conditions.  The  question  of  the  durability  of  woods 
is  of  importance  to  farmers  because  of  the  necessity  of  using 
woods  in  contact  with  the  soil,  as  for  posts,  poles,  stakes, 
sills,  for  silos  and  other  purposes.  Some  woods  are  very 
durable  while  other  woods  soon  decay  when  kept  moist.  Just 
what  makes  one  wood  more  durable  than  another  is  not 
known.  It  is  believed  that  during  the  change  from  sapwood 
to  heartwood  certain  tannins,  gums  and  resins  are  deposited 
in  the  walls  of  the  cells  along  with  coloring  material  which 
tend  to  preserve  the  wood.  It  may  be  that  more  of  these 
substances  are  deposited  in  some  wood  than  in  others,  or  that 
these  substances  vary  in  kind.  As  a  general  rule  dark  colored 
woods  are  the  more  durable,  as  black  walnut,  mahogany,  red 
wood,  red  cedar  and  locust.  Light  colored  woods  are  usually 
perishable,  like  cottonwood,  willow,  birch  and  sycamore.  Out- 
side of  this  fact  there  seems  to  be  but  little  relation  between 
the  physical  properties  of  different  woods  and  their  dura- 
bility. For  example,  it  might  be  imagined  that  heavy  woods 
would  be  more  durable  than  light  woods,  but  hickory  and  hard 
maple,  two  of  our  heaviest  hardwoods,  are  not  durable,  while 
catalpa  and  cedar,  two  of  our  lightest  woods  in  weight,  are 
very  durable.  Neither  are  all  soft  woods  perishable,  for  cedar, 
redwood  and  catalpa  are  all  soft  woods.  With  the  same  kind 
of  wood,  however,  the  heavier  and  harder  the  wood  the  more 
durable  it  will  be.  That  is,  a  heavy  piece  of  pine  is  more 
durable  than  a  light  piece. 

The  time  of  year  when  a  tree  is  cut  is  often  said  to  have 


THE  DIFFERENT  PROPERTIES  OF  WOODS        193 

a  marked  influence  on  the  durability  of  the  wood.  Many  claim 
if  posts  are  cut  in  winter,  when  the  "sap  is  down,"  they  will 
be  more  durable  than  if  cut  in  summer.  In  the  winter  time 
the  wood  of  trees  contains  large  amounts  of  starches  and 
sugars  and  other  food  materials  stored  in  the  wood.  So  a 
post  would  naturally  be  more  durable  if  cut  in  summer  than 
in  winter.  There  is  no  meaning  to  the  expression  when  the 
"sap  is  down,"  for  the  sap  never  moves  down  the  wood  of 
the  tree  as  we  have  learned,  and  there  is  actually  more  moisture 
in  a  tree  in  winter  than  in  summer,  because  of  the  less  trans- 
piration taking  place  from  the  tree.  If  cut  in  winter  posts 
dry  out  slowly  and  do  not  season  check  so  deeply  as  when 
cut  in  summer.  This  may  have  some  effect  on  the  durability. 
It  is  claimed  by  many  that  well  seasoned  posts  will  be  more 
durable  than  posts  set  green.  Some  claim,  also,  if  a  post  is 
set  upside  down  it  will  last  longer  than  if  set  with  the  large 
end  in  the  ground.  In  all  probability  these  will  have  little 
effect  on  the  durability  of  the  wood.  Posts  cut  early  in  the 
spring  are  easier  to  peel  than  if  cut  at  any  other  time. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  durability  of  some 
of  the  common  woods : 


Very  Durable. 

Durable. 

Perishable. 

Very  Perishable. 

Black  locust 

White  oak 

White  elm 

Cottonwood 

Red  cedar 

Cherry 

Beech 

Willow 

Cypress 

Larch 

Hickory 

Aspen 

Redwood 

Honey  locust 

Hard  maple 

Black  gum 

Catalpa 

Black  walnut 

Red  gum 

Jack  pine 

Sassafras 

White  ash 

Box-elder 

Osage  orange 

Hemlock 

Soft  maple 

Chestnut 

Spruce 

Yellow  birch 

Soft  maple 

Sycamore 

Basswood 

Strength. — Strength  in  wood  varies  with  the  density  or 
weight.      Light    woods    lack   the    strength    of    heavy    woods. 


194  FARM  FORESTRY 

Within  the  same  kind  of  wood  the  strength  will  vary  with  the 
density.  With  woods  that  form  large  pores  in  the  spring, 
like  oak,  chestnut  and  hickory,  the  wood  from  fast-growing 
trees  is  stronger  than  from  slow-growing  trees.  This  is  be- 
cause of  the  greater  percentage  of  hard,  strong  summer  wood. 
The  amount  of  spring  wood  will  remain  the  same  in  these 
woods  whether  the  wood  grows  fast  or  slowly.  In  the  fast- 
growing  wood  the  increase  will  almost  entirely  be  made  up 
of  the  summer  wood.  Second  growth  hickory  is  preferred  to 
the  forest  grown  wood  for  wagon  stock  because  of  this  fact. 
It  is  stronger  because  of  the  faster  growth.  With  conifers,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  faster  the  growth  the  weaker  the  wood. 
In  a  fast-growing  conifer  there  is  a  greater  percentage  of 
spring  wood  which  is  much  softer  and  weaker  than  the  sum- 
mer wood.  In  conifers  fast  growth  means  a  large  growth 
in  the  spring  wood.  Since  summer  wood  is  darker  than  spring 
wood,  the  darker  the  wood  in  the  same  species,  leaving  out 
of  account  resin  content,  the  stronger  it  will  be.  In  selecting 
a  strong  piece  of  pine,  then,  a  dark-colored  piece  that  has 
narrow  annual  rings  should  be  chosen. 

With  hard  woods  that  do  not  produce  large  spring  pores 
like  tulip,  poplar,  maple  and  birch  rapidity  of  growth  has  little 
effect  on  the  strength  or  durability  of  wood. 

Defects  in  boards  or  timbers  decrease  the  strength,  such 
as  knots,  checks,  splits,  etc.  Clear  lumber  is  stronger  than 
knotty  material.  With  timbers  the  position  of  the  defect 
has  some  influence  on  the  strength.  A  timber  laid  so  that  the 
defect  is  near  the  top  when  set  will  be  stronger  than  the  same 
timber  set  with  the  defect  below.  This  is  because  in  a  timber 
subject  to  a  stress  the  upper  half  of  the  timber  will  be  subject 
to  compression,  while  in  the  lower  half  of  the  timber  the 
fibers  will  have  a  tendency  to  be  pulled  apart,  being  subjected 
to  a  tension.  The  manner  of  sawing  lumber  from  logs  and 
the  direction  of  the  annual  rings  passing  through  the  wood 
will  also  influence  the  strength. 


THE  DIFFERENT  PROPERTIES  OF  WOODS        195 

Elasticity. — Elasticity  is  the  property  possessed  by  many 
woods  so  that  when  bent  out  of  shape  they  will  spring  back 
to  their  former  position.  Elasticity  is  essential  where  woods 
are  subject  to  strains  that  tend  to  change  their  shape.  The 
rims  and  spokes  of  a  buggy  wheel,  the  thills  and  tongues  of 
wagons,  an  ax  handle,  a  bow,  oars  to  a  boat,  all  must  be 
made  of  woods  that  have  elasticity.  If  woods  are  bent  too 
far  out  of  shape  they  will  not  return  exactly  to  their  former 
positions,  but  will  have  a  permanent  set. 

TABLE  OF  ELASTICITY  OF  THE  COMMON  WOODS 


Woods  with  Considerable  Elasticity. 

Woods  with  Little  Elasticity. 

Yew 

Cottonwood 

Larch 

Birch 

Hickory 

Maple 

Osage  orange 
Lance  wood 

Elm 
Alder 

Ash 

Walnut 

Red.  cedar 

Yellow  pine 

Fir 

Tulip  poplar 

Locust 

Beech 

Chestnut 

Spruce 

White  pine 

Oak 

Flexibility. — Flexibility  is  the  property  some  woods  pos- 
sess by  which  it  is  possible  to  bend  them  without  their  break- 
ing. Hickory  is  flexible,  pine  is  brittle.  It  depends  largely 
on  toughness  in  the  wood  or  the  ability  of  the  fibers  to  hold 
together.  Young  shoots  are  more  easily  bent  than  old  wood, 
moist  wood  than  dry  wood.  When  wood  that  is  green  or 
that  has  been  moistened  by  steaming  or  soaking  is  bent  and 
then  dried  in  that  position,  it  will  always  tend  to  retain 
its  new  shape.  The  rims  of  buggy  wheels,  hoops,  shafts, 
shinny  sticks,  the  curved  handles  to  canes  and  umbrellas  are 
examples  of  woods  that  have  been  bent  and  dried  in  position. 
Lumber  that  has  been  dried  flat  will  usually  not  warp.  Boards 


196 


FARM  FORESTRY 


are  often  weighted  down  or  clamped  to  prevent  their  warping 
in  drying. 

Toughness. — A  property  desired  in  many  woods  that  are 
subject  to  sudden  shocks  so  that  they  will  recover  from 
them  is  toughness.  The  rims  and  spokes  of  a  wagon  are 
subject  to  many  sharp  blows  in  every  mile,  an  ax  handle 
is  jarred  with  every  stroke,  a  trunk  must  stand  many  bumps 
and  blows  in  the  course  of  a  journey.  A  wood  that  shatters 
easily  or  that  breaks  instead  of  resisting  a  blow  will  not  serve 
these  purposes.  A  tough  wood  must  be  strong  and  pliable 
and  not  weak  and  brittle.  Basswood,  hickory  and  ash  are 
examples  of  tough  woods. 

Fuel  Value  of  Woods. — In  general  the  heavier  the  wood 
the  greater  will  be  its  fuel  value.  All  woods  do  not  burn  in 
the  same  way.  Chestnut,  larch  and  hemlock  crack  in  the  fire 
and  emit  sparks,  while  hornbeam,  birch  and  alder  burn  with 
a  particularly  quiet  flame.  With  coniferous  woods  the  larger 
the  quantity  of  resinous  material  in  the  wood,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  greater  the  fuel  value.  Fat  pine  or  light 
wood  is  wood  that  has  a  large  amount  of  resinous  material. 
Dry  woods  burn  much  better  than  wet  woods  and  send  out 
more  heat.  This  is  because  with  wet  woods  much  of  the  heat 
will  go  to  evaporate  the  moisture  in  the  wood.  It  is  claimed 
that  5.2  pounds  of  dry  wood  is  equivalent  in  the  amount  of 
heat  produced  to  one  pound  of  hard  coal. 

TABLE  OF  FUEL  VALUE  or  COMMON  WOODS 


Best. 

Good. 

Moderate 

Poor. 

Hickory 
Beech 
Hornbeam 
Locust 
White  oak 

Ash 
Birch 
Sugar  maple 
Elm 
Black  walnut 

Chestnut 
Hemlock 
Catalpa 
Box-elder 
Butternut 
Soft  maple 

White  pine 
Cottonwood 
Aspen 
White  spruce 
White  fir 

Color. — Color  adds  to  the  value  of   wood   for  decorative 
purposes  and  is  an  aid  in  identifying  woods.     The  color  of 


THE  DIFFERENT  PROPERTIES  OF  WOODS        197 

woods  varies  from  the  deep  black  of  the  heartwood  of  per- 
simmon to  the  almost  white  wood  of  holly.  When  wood  is 
first  formed  from  the  cambium  layer  it  has  but  little  color 
and  is  called  sapwood.  Later  the  wood  becomes  darker, 
changing  to  heartwood.  The  change  in  color  is  due  to  the 
infiltration  of  various  coloring  materials,  oils,  gums,  tannins, 
etc.,  in  the  walls  of  the  cells  of  the  wood,  the  color  varying 
with  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  these  materials. 

Odor  and  Taste. — Nearly  all  woods  have  a  characteristic 
odor  and  taste.  In  some,  like  red  cedar,  sandalwood  and  cam- 
phorwood  the  odor  adds  to  their  value.  Rotting  wood  also 
has  an  odor  that  is  characteristic  of  the  species,  as  has  also 
the  smoke  of  burning  woods.  Many  woods  have  a  pronounced 
taste — willow  a  bitter  taste,  chestnut  an  astringent  taste. 
The  taste  and  odor  of  woods  also  aid  in  their  identification,, 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  USE  OF  PERISHABLE  WOODS  FOR  FENCE  POSTS 
BY  TREATING  WITH  CREOSOTE 

IN  many  regions  the  question  of  a  future  supply  of  fence 
posts  is  becoming  a  serious  one.  Trees  yielding  durable  woods 
have  been  plentiful  in  the  past,  but  the  time  has  come  when 
many  of  them  are  too  scarce  and  too  high  in  price  to  be 
utilized  generally  by  farmers.  White  oak,  formerly  one  of 
the  chief  post  woods,  is  becoming  too  valuable  for  other  pur- 
poses to  be  utilized  for  fence  posts.  The  supply  of  chestnut 
is  sure  to  be  greatly  depleted  by  the  chestnut  blight,  if  not  en- 
tirely wiped  out.  Locust  for  fence  posts  is  now  hard  to  obtain 
and  in  some  sections  the  price  is  almost  prohibitive.  Cedar  has 
long  since  ceased  to  be  a  fence  post  material  except  locally. 
Its  use  for  making  pencils  and  for  boxes  and  chests  has  raised 
the  value  of  the  wood  too  high  for  general  use.  Walnut, 
one  of  the  most  durable  of  woods,  has  become  very  scarce. 

Because  of  this  condition  substitutes  for  the  wooden  posts 
are  being  sought.  Many  posts  of  iron  and  concrete  are  being 
made  and  used,  but  their  cost  is  usually  high.  Concrete  posts 
can  be  made  for  about  25  cents  each.  But  even  at  that  price 
they  will  not  come  into  general  use.  A  fence  post  to  be 
practical  must  be  cheap.  In  foreign  countries  where  wood  is 
too  valuable  and  scarce  to  be  utilized  for  fence  posts,  farmers 
have  learned  for  the  most  part  to  do  without  fences.  Rota- 
tions are  so  worked  out  that  the  pasture  lot  is  not  considered. 
Permanent  pastures  are  established  and  the  cattle  confined  to 
them.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  American  farmer  will  soon  get 
along  without  fences. 

198 


Photo  by  A.  S.  Rhodes, 

Plant   for  creosoting  fenceposts  made  of  two  discarded  gasolene  steel 

barrels. 


USE  OF  PEEISHABLE  WOODS  FOR  FENCE  POSTS    199 

Every  woodlot  contains  trees  large  enough  and  strong 
enough  that  could  be  used  for  fence  posts  if  it  were  not  for 
the  fact  that  the  wood  rots  easily  and  quickly  when  put  in 
the  ground.  Soft  and  hard  maple,  box-elder,  ash,  elm,  beech, 
poplar,  sycamore  and  other  trees  would  be  as  serviceable  as  the 
best  of  cedar  or  locust  if  the  wood  were  durable.  Many  of 
these  trees,  too,  are  fast  growers.  Cottonwood  will  grow  to 
fence  post  size  in  15  years  or  less,  ash  in  20  years,  maple  in 
20  years,  red  oak  in  25  years. 

How  can  the  trees  that  commonly  grow  in  woodlots,  but 
which  do  not  produce  durable  woods,  be  utilized  for  fence 
posts  ?  Can  wood  be  made  durable  ? 

Wood  decays  because  of  the  destruction  of  the  cells  by 
low  forms  of  plant  life  called  fungi,  as  has  already  been 
explained.  When  the  spore  of  the  fungus  plant  falls  on 
moist  wood  it  will  start  to  grow.  It  sends  out  filaments  into 
the  wood  consuming  the  fibers  and  causing  decay.  Like  other 
forms  of  plant  life,  fungi  require  for  their  development  heat, 
air,  food  and  moisture.  The  reason  a  fence  post  decays  most 
quickly  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  because  there  the 
conditions  are  most  favorable  for  the  growth  of  the  fungi. 
Below  the  surface  a  post  rots  very  slowly  because  of  insuf- 
ficient air,  and  above  the  surface  the  post  rots  slowly  because 
the  post  dries  out  quickly  after  a  rain.  Any  wood  in  con- 
tact with  the  ground  or  placed  where  it  will  be  kept  constantly 
moist  will  in  time  decay.  If  the  fungus  is  deprived  of  any 
one  of  the  factors  of  growth  mentioned  it  cannot  live  and  th<j 
wood  will  not  decay.  If  wood  is  kept  dry  it  will  not  decay. 
A  table  made  even  of  a  very  perishable  wood  like  birch  or 
hickory  will  last  indefinitely  if  kept  in  the  house.  Wood  con- 
stantly covered  with  water  cannot  decay  because  of  the  lack 
of  air  for  the  development  of  the  fungus  plant.  Bog  oak  logs 
are  dug  from  the  swamps  in  Ireland,  where  they  have  lain 
for  centuries,  and  made  into  furniture.  Wood  decays  very 
slowly  in  cold  regions,  because  fungi  need  warmth.  Wood  that 


200  FARM  FORESTRY 

has  been  poisoned,  so  that  the  fungus  is  deprived  of  its  food 
supply,  will  never  decay  as  long  as  the  poison  remains  in  the 
wood.  The  methods  of  preserving  wood  are  based  on  this 
principle  of  depriving  the  fungus  plant  of  its  food  by  poison- 
ing the  wood.  This  is  the  only  factor  that  can  be  controlled 
practically  in  fence  posts. 

How  the  Life  of  Fence  Posts  can  be  Lengthened. — The 
drier  a  post  is  kept  the  longer  will  be  its  life.  Draining  the 
surface  water  away  from  a  post  will  help  to  prolong  its  life. 
Piling  stones,  ashes  or  gravel  around  a  post  will  help  to  drain 
away  moisture  and  will  keep  down  the  weeds  and  grass  that 
spring  up  about  a  post  keeping  the  base  moist  and  so  subject  to 
decay.  Sometimes  posts  are  set  in  cement  or  concrete.  Because 
of  the  shrinking  and  swelling  of  wood  with  moisture  this  is  not 
an  effective  method.  The  cement  is  cracked  by  the  swelling  of 
the  posts  and  in  dry  times  the  posts  will  shrink  and  will  not 
completely  fill  the  cavity  in  the  cement  allowing  the  spores  of 
fungi  to  be  washed  down  between  the  wood  and  the  cement. 
Coating  a  post  with  cement  has  the  same  objection. 

Jt  is  possible  to  prolong  the  life  of  fence  posts  by  pre- 
venting the  entrance  of  fungi.  Charring  the  ends  of  posts  will 
cover  them  with  a  layer  of  charcoal  through  which  the  fungus 
can  force  its  way  only  with  difficulty.  It  also  hardens  the 
wood  and  may  produce  changes  in  the  composition.  In  char- 
ring wood  the  danger  lies  in  the  wood  checking  badly  and 
splitting  open.  The  posts  must  be  well  seasoned.  The  charred 
portion  must  extend  8  to  10  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  when  the  posts  are  set.  Wood  that  is  kept  well  painted 
does  not  easily  decay,  because  the  layer  of  paint  keeps  out 
the  fungus.  If  wood  is  wet  when  painted,  however,  it  makes 
the  wood  especially  liable  to  dry  rot  should  that  fungus  gain 
entrance.  Tar,  pitch  and  various  kinds  of  oils  and  other  sub- 
stances can  be  used  for  coating  fence  posts  with  considerable 
success.  Surface  coatings  are  of  but  temporary  value.  They 
are  easily  worn  or  broken  off  subjecting  the  wood  to  decay. 


USE  OF  PEEISHABLE  WOODS  FOR  FENCE  POSTS  201 

The  most  effective  method  of  preserving  fence  posts  is 
without  doubt  by  destroying  the  food  value,  so  that  the  fungus 
cannot  live  in  it.  The  substances  most  commonly  used  for 
this  purpose  are  poisonous  salts,  like  copper  sulphate,  corrosive 
sublimate  and  zinc  chloride,  and  oils  such  as  crude  oil  and 
creosote.  The  use  of  salts  for  preserving  fence  posts  is  of 
value  only  in  regions  of  scanty  rainfall.  In  a  moist  climate 
salts  are  easily  leached  out  of  the  wood.  Creosote,  which  is 
a  product  of  the  distillation  of  coal  tar,  is  the  most  important 
wood  preservative.  It  not  only  poisons  the  wood  so  that  fungi 
cannot  live  in  it,  but,  being  an  oil,  it  tends  to  exclude  moisture. 
Most  of  the  patented  wood  preservatives  on  the  market  have 
creosote  as  their  base.  It  can  be  obtained  through  hardware 
dealers. 


METHODS    OF    TREATING    FENCE    POSTS    WITH    CREOSOTE 

There  are  three  methods  of  treating  fence  posts  with  creo- 
sote, the  brush  method,  the  dipping  method  and  the  open  tank 
method. 

The  Brush  Method  of  Treating  Fence  Posts.— The  brush 
method  consists  in  painting  the  posts  with  creosote.  The 
posts  are  thoroughly  dried  and  seasoned  so  that  the  creosote, 
which  is  applied  hot,  will  be  absorbed  by  the  wood.  The 
creosote  is  painted  on  the  posts  with  an  ordinary  paint  brush, 
and  at  least  two  coats  should  be  given  each  coat  being  allowed 
to  sink  into  the  wood  before  another  is  applied.  While  the 
brush  method  will  prolong  the  life  of  posts  somewhat  it  is 
not  an  effective  method  because  the  creosote  does  not  sink 
deeply  into  the  wood  and  is  easily  leached  out,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  get  the  creosote  into  all  cracks  and  season  checks 
and  defects,  through  each  of  which  the  fungus  can  gain  en- 
trance to  the  wood.  The  life  of  all  timbers  used  in  contact 
with  the  ground  or  where  subject  to  damp  conditions  can  be 
lengthened  many  years  by  this  method. 


202  FARM  FORESTRY 

The  Dipping  Method. — In  this  method  the  creosote  is 
placed  in  a  tank  or  barrel  and  the  ends  of  the  posts  are  dipped 
in  the  creosote.  This  is  a  more  effective  method  than  the  brush 
method,  but  the  creosote  will  not  penetrate  the  wood  very  far. 
Both  ends  of  the  posts  are  sometimes  dipped  and  often  the 
tops  of  posts  that  have  been  treated  by  the  open  tank  method 
are  treated  by  dipping. 

The  Open  Tank  Method. — In  the  open  tank  method  the 
posts  are  placed  in  a  tank  with  creosote  and  heated  to  near 
the  boiling  point  for  several  hours  and  then  allowed  to  cool 
down  in  cold  creosote.  When  the  posts  are  heated  in  hot 
creosote  the  air  inside  the  posts  expands  and  a  large  part  of 
the  moisture  in  the  wood  is  changed  to  steam  and  driven  off. 
There  is  an  outward  pressure  set  up  in  the  posts.  After  the 
posts  have  been  heated  for  some  time  in  hot  creosote,  if  they 
are  immediately  placed  in  cold  creosote,  or  if  left  to  cool 
down  in  the  creosote,  the  heated  air  inside  the  posts  will  con- 
tract and  the  steam  will  change  to  water  forming  a  partial 
vacuum  inside  the  wood.  By  atmospheric  pressure  the  creo- 
sote will  be  forced  deeply  into  the  wood  to  take  the  place  of 
the  air  and  moisture  forced  out  of  the  wood  in  heating.  This 
forms  a  shell  of  creosoted  wood  about  the  post,  all  cracks, 
defects  and  season  checks  being  rilled.  In  some  kinds  of  woods 
the  creosote  will  sink  an  inch  or  more  into  the  wood. 

Preparation  of  the  Posts  for  Treatment. — The  posts  should 
be  thoroughly  seasoned  or  air  dried  before  treatment,  as  the 
presence  of  much  moisture  in  the  wood  tends  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  the  creosote.  The  posts  should  be  piled  loosely 
in  some  place  out  of  the  sun,  but  where  the  air  will  circulate 
freely,  for  several  months.  If  piled  in  the  sun  the  posts  are 
apt  to  season  check  badly.  The  better  the  posts  are  seasoned 
the  easier  will  be  the  treatment  and  the  deeper  the  penetra- 
tion. All  the  bark  should  be  removed,  especially  the  papery 
inner  bark,  as  this  prevents  the  creosote  from  entering  the 
wood.  Usually  only  about  40  inches  of  the  lower  end  of  the 


USE  OF  PERISHABLE  WOODS  FOR  FENCE  POSTS   203 

post  is  treated.  This  will  bring  the  creosoted  portion  of  the 
post  6  to  8  inches  above  the  ground  when  the  posts  are  set. 
It  is  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  where  the  fastest  decay 
takes  place.  Unless  the  wood  is  very  perishable  it  is  not  usual 
to  treat  the  tops  of  the  posts,  but  it  can  easily  be  done  by 
inverting  the  posts  in  the  tank  when  one  end  has  been  treated. 
Merely  dipping  the  tops  in  hot  creosote  or  using  the  brush 
process  will  have  a  very  favorable  effect.  When  the  tops  are 
not  to  be  treated  it  is  well  to  bevel  them  off  so  that  they  will 
shed  rain. 

Where  posts  are  to  be  given  a  preservative  treatment  it  is 
possible  to  use  a  much  smaller  post  than  is  generally  used. 
A  post  5  inches  in  diameter  is  large  enough  and  strong  enough 
for  most  line  fences.  In  using  small  posts  a  considerable  sav- 
ing of  creosote  can  be  made.  Round  posts  are  much  preferred 
for  the  process,  because  sapwood  will  take  the  preservative 
much  more  readily  than  heartwood. 

Equipment  Necessary. — For  treating  a  few  fence  posts 
each  year  a  very  satisfactory  tank  can  be  made  from  a  dis- 
carded gasolene  drum  or  barrel  of  sheet  steel.  The  top  should 
be  cut  out  and  the  tank  set  up  on  bricks  or  stones,  so  that  a 
fire  can  be  built  beneath.  A  stovepipe  connected  with  the 
firebox  will  aid  in  giving  a  draft  and  carry  the  smoke  away. 
An  outfit  of  this  kind  at  the  most  should  cost  but  a  few  dol- 
lars. Such  a  tank  will  hold  from  eight  to  ten  fence  posts, 
4  or  5  inches  in  diameter.  Creosote  being  inflammable,  the 
tank  should  not  be  set  up  near  buildings. 

Carrying  out  the  Treatment  in  a  Single  Tank. — The 
creosote,  which  at  ordinary  temperatures  is  sometimes  not  in 
a  liquid  form,  should  be  heated  in  the  tank  to  about  the  boil- 
ing point.  A  very  high  temperature  will  tend  to  weaken  the 
wood  and  a  large  amount  of  the  creosote  will  be  evaporated. 
The  tank  should  then  be  filled  with  fence  posts.  Sufficient 
creosote  should  be  used  to  cover  at  least  the  lower  40  inches 
of  the  posts.  After  heating  for  several  hours  the  fire  should 


204  FARM  FORESTRY 

be  drawn  and  the  posts  left  in  the  tank  until  cool.  The  posts 
will  then  be  treated. 

Two  runs  of  posts  can  easily  be  treated  in  a  day  on  the 
farm  without  interfering  with  the  regular  work.  The  tank 
can  be  filled  with  posts  in  the  morning  and  a  fire  built  that 
will  last  about  two  or  three  hours  before  burning  out.  The 
posts  after  being  treated  will  cool  down  during  the  day  and 
by  night  will  be  treated.  A  new  run  of  posts  can  be  ~put  in, 
heated  as  before  for  two  or  three  hours  and  allowed  to  cool 
down  over  night.  In  cold  weather  the  tank  will  cool  down  fast 
enough  to  start  a  new  run  at  noon.  In  this  way  three  runs 
of  eight  or  ten  posts  each  can  be  treated  without  much  effort 
every  day. 

The  Two-Tank  Method. — Where  a  large  number  of  posts 
are  to  be  treated  the  treatment  can  be  given  more  quickly 
and  economically  by  using  two  tanks.  The  posts  are  heated 
as  before  for  several  hours  in  hot  creosote  in  the  heating  tank 
and  then  immediately  transferred  to  a  second  tank  containing 
cold  creosote  to  cool  for  about  an  equal  period.  The  result 
will  be  the  same  as  when  only  one  tank  is  used. 

It  is  possible  for  farmers  in  the  same  region  to  cooperate 
in  the  purchase  of  a  fence  post  treating  outfit,  thus  reducing 
the  initial  cost.  In  this  way  larger  equipment  can  be  purchased 
and  the  work  handled  in  a  more  economical  way. 

Length  of  Treatment. — The  length  of  time  necessary  to 
heat  the  posts  in  hot  creosote  and  to  cool  them  in  cold  creosote 
to  secure  satisfactory  penetration  of  the  wood  will  vary  with 
different  kinds  of  wood.  Some  woods  absorb  creosote  readily 
and  are  easily  treated,  while  other  woods  require  a  long  treat- 
ment. In  general  posts  should  be  heated  for  from  four  to  five 
hours  in  hot  creosote  and  cooled  an  equal  length  of  time.  The 
depth  of  penetration  can  be  known  by  cutting  into  a  treated 
post.  The  more  creosote  a  post  absorbs  and  the  deeper  the 
creosote  penetrates  into  the  wood  the  longer  the  post  will 
last,  or,  in  other  words,  the  longer  the  creosote  will  remain 


USE  OF  PERISHABLE  WOODS  FOR  FENCE  POSTS   205 

in  the  wood  before  being  leached  out  by  the  rain.  The  greater 
the  absorption,  however,  the  greater  the  cost.  To  a  farmer 
using  his  own  time  the  cost  of  the  creosote  is  the  only  real 
expense  connected  with  the  treatment.  Pitch  pine  posts  of  the 
same  size  will  absorb  from  I  to  8  pounds  of  creosote,  depend- 
ing on  the  length  of  treatment,  making  the  cost  of  creosote 
alone  from  about  2.  cents  to  16  cents.  The  quantity  of  creosote 
absorbed  can  be  controlled  by  varying  the  length  of  time  the 
posts  are  heated  in  hot  creosote  and  cooled  in  cold  creosote. 
A  penetration  of  a  half  inch  is  sufficient  for  most  kinds  of 
posts.  What  is  desired  is  a  shell  of  creosoted  wood  about  the 
posts  that  will  remain  for  years  and  prevent  the  entrance  of 
fungi.  The  heaviest  treatment  will,  of  course,  give  the  best 
results. 

Willow,  soft  maple,  cottonwood  and  box-elder,  common 
woods  that  last  but  3  or  4  years  in  the  ground  or  less  untreated, 
will  last  20  to  25  years  or  longer  when  treated  at  a  cost  of  about 
10  cents  for  both  top  and  butt  treatment.  They  should  be 
heated  for  about  5  hours  in  hot  creosote  and  cooled  from  5 
to  10  hours,  with  the  exception  of  cottonwood  which  absorbs 
the  treatment  readily,  and  should  be  given  a  short  treatment. 
It  should  be  heated  not  more  than  2  hours.  Ash  and  red  oak 
will  last  about  6  to  7  years  in  the  ground  untreated,  and  when 
given  a  treatment  by  heating  for  6  or  7  hours  in  hot  creosote 
and  cooling  for  10  to  12  hours,  they  should  last  25  years  or 
more. 

ADVANTAGES   OF  TREATING   FENCE   POSTS    WITH    CREOSOTE 

1.  It  permits  the  use  of  material  the   farmer  has  in  his 
own  woodlot  that  is  not  used  at  present  because  of  the  perish- 
able nature  of  the  wood. 

2.  By  a  preservative  treatment  the  life  of  posts  can  be 
lengthened  many  times.     Posts  that  last  but  3  or  4  years  can 
be  made  to  last  20  to  25  years,  thus  saving  not  only  the  cost 
of  new  posts  but  the  cost  of  replacing. 


206  FARM  FORESTRY 

3.  Smaller  posts  can  be  used  when  treated  with  creosote. 
Large  posts  are  usually  used  because  they  will  stand  longer 
before  decaying. 

4.  The  cost  of  a  post  from  the  woodlot  creosoted  is  much 
less  than  the  cost  of  a  durable  post. 


APPENDIX 


SUGGESTED  LIST  OF  PRACTICUM  EXERCISES 
THAT  COULD  BE  GIVEN  IN  CONNECTION  WITH 
A  COURSE  IN  FARM  FORESTRY. 

I.  Tree  study  and  identification.  As  many  exercises  as 
possible  should  be  devoted  to  the  study  and  identification  of 
trees.  The  following  method  of  conducting  such  exercises 
has  been  found  to  be  satisfactory. 

If  the  exercises  are  to  start  in  the  fall  of  the  year  study 
the  hardwoods  first  and  the  conifers  later  in  the  winter;  the 
opposite  method  should  be  followed  in  the  spring.  Take  the 
students  out  to  the  tree  to  be  studied  and  have  them  take  notes 
on  the  following  points: 

1.  Name,  common  and  scientific. 

2.  Location  of  tree,  open  or  forest  grown,  kind  and  char- 
acter of  soil  and  situation. 

3.  General  form  and  appearance. 

4.  Method  of  branching. 

5.  Trunk  diameter  at  breast  height,  clear  length  of  bole 
and  total  height  of  tree  (approximate). 

6.  Crown- width  and  length  of  crown,  general  shape  and 
appearance,  character  of  shade  cast. 

7.  Bark  color  and  characteristic  markings. 

Have  each  student  secure  a  small  branch  with  characteristic 
leaves  and  buds,  and  either  study  sitting  around  the  tree  or 
take  to  the  class  room.  All  observations  made  should  be  re- 

207 


208  APPENDIX 

corded  by  each   student   in  notebooks,   under   the   following 
heads,  to  be  followed  with  each  tree  studied : 

1.  Twig. 

2.  Bud. 

3.  Leaves. 

4.  Fruit  or  seed. 

1.  Starting  with  the  twig  the  instructor  asks  for  observa- 
tions on  the  twig.     Have  each  member  of  the  class  study  the 
twig  and  tell  whatever  is  observed.     Bring  out  the  following 
points:  size,  color,  thickness,  smoothness,  shiny  or  dull,  mark- 
ings, lenticles,  annual  nodes,  leaf  scars,  etc. 

2.  Next  take  up  the  bud  in  the  same  way  and  bring  out 
the   following    points :     size    by    measuring,    shape — conical, 
round,    one-sided,   long,    short,   pointed,   blunt,    scales,   hairs, 
resin,  sticky,  smooth,  where  placed  on  the  twig,  and  arrange- 
ment, comparison  of  terminal  and  lateral  buds. 

3.  Then  the  leaf  is  observed.    The  following  points  should 
be  brought  out:   Size  and  variation   in  size,   general   shape; 
lobes — number    and    form,    round,    sharp,    color    above    and 
below,   thickness ;  veins — arrangement,   prominence,   how   far 
they  extend,  hairs  above  and  below ;  stem — length,  shape,  how 
fastened  to  leaf  and  twig.    With  conifers  the  number  of  years 
the  leaves  remain  on  the  trees  should  be  noted. 

4.  The  fruit  and  seed  should  be  obtained  where  possible 
and  studied  in  the  same  way,  especially  the  form,  size,  shape, 
etc.     Old  seeds  can  usually  be  found  on  the  ground  under  the 
trees. 

After  two  or  three  trees  have  been  examined  in  this  way 
the  method  will  be  clear  to  both  students  and  instructor. 
There  is  no  better  training  for  the  observation.  A  tree  studied 
in  this  way  will  never  be  forgotten.  Do  not  allow  one  or  two 
students  to  make  all  the  observations.  Only  three  or  four  trees 
should  be  examined  in  a  practicum  period.  A  few  trees  well 
studied  are  better  than  many  trees  skimmed  over. 

After   studying  the   specimens,   the  leaf,   twig,   buds   and 


APPENDIX  209 

fruit  can  be  drawn  in  the  notebook  free  hand  or  by  tracing 
the  outline  and  filling  in  the  detail  by  free  hand,  or  the  leaves 
can  be  dried  between  newspapers  or  regular  drying  boards 
and  mounted.  The  instructor  will  supplement  the  notes  with 
general  remarks  about  the  use  of  the  tree  for  ornamental  or 
forestry  purposes  and  the  value  and  uses  of  the  wood.  The 
woods  of  trees  can  be  studied  in  much  the  same  manner. 

II.  Heights  of  trees. — By  the  two-staff  method.    By  com- 
paring the  length  of  the  shadow  of  the  tree  and  the  length  of 
the  shadow  of  a  pole  of  known  length. 

Record  diameter  at  breast  height  and  height  of  each  tree 
measured  as  well  as  the  name  of  the  species. 

III.  Contents  of  individual  trees. — In  board  feet  by  the 
use  of  the   lo-foot  pole  and  crosspiece  and  rule  of  thumb, 
and  compare  results  by  applying  the  Doyle  and  Scribner  rules. 

7?  V  J-f 

In  cubic  feet  by  the  formula  - 

IV.  Estimating  timber. — Lay  off  one-sixteenth  of  an  acre 
either  in  a  square  plot  52  feet  on  a  side  setting  stakes  at  the 
corners,  or  by  circular  plots  with  29^  feet  radius,  marking  the 
trees  on  the  edge  of  the  circle.    Use  larger  plots  if  time  allows. 

In  board  feet. — Estimate  all  the  trees  on  the  plot  above  8 
inches  in  diameter.  Use  lo-foot  pole  and  crosspiece  to  get 
diameter  and  length  of  the  butt  log,  estimate  the  diameters 
and  lengths  of  upper  logs.  Apply  rule  of  thumb  and  also  log 
tables.  Multiply  the  result  by  16  to  get  the  estimate  for  an 
acre. 

In  cordwood. — Find  diameter  outside  the  bark  at  breast 
height  and  total  height,  of  all  trees  on  the  plot  above  a  certain 

7?  v  J-f 
diameter,  about  6  inches.  Apply  formula    -         -   to  each  tree. 

Multiply  the  estimate  of  the  plot  by  16  to  get  stand  per  acre. 

V.  Find  area  of  woodlot.     It  will  be  better  to  lay  off  a 
small  tract  on  level,  open  ground  and  find  the  area. 


210  APPENDIX 

VI.  Lay  off  an  acre  or  half-acre  plot.     Make  a  list  of  all 
trees   on   the  plot  and   find   the  percentage   of   the   different 
species  by  dividing  the  number  of  trees  of  a  certain  kind  by 
the  total  number  of  trees  on  the  tract. 

VII.  Make  a  list  of  trees  found  growing  only  in  the  open, 
intolerant  trees,  and  a  list  of  those  found  growing  under  the 
shade  of  other  trees,  tolerant  trees. 

VIII.  Note  for  different  species  of  trees  the  time  ~when 
the  buds  begin  to  swell  in  the  spring,  the  time  when  the  leaves 
are  fully  developed,  the  time  of  blossoming,  the  time  when 
the  leaves  fall,  and  the  time  when  the  seed  is  ripe. 

IX.  Lay  off  a  sample  plot  in  the  woodlot  and  have  students 
write  a  description  of  the  plot,  kinds  and  percentages  of  trees, 
size  and  height  of  trees,  condition  of  the  trees,  whether  injured 
by  fungus  diseases  or  insects,  the  undergrowth,  the  reproduc- 
tion, forest  floors  and  the  humus. 

X.  Have  students  mark  with  chalk  or  otherwise  the  trees 
that  should  be  removed  to  increase  the  growth  of  the  trees 
left  or  to  improve  the  character  of  the  woodlot. 

XI.  Have  students  study  the  market  conditions,  the  prod- 
ucts  that  are   in  demand  and  the  prices  of   each   delivered. 
Information  can  be  secured  from  portable  sawmill  men,  from 
lumber  dealers,  and  from  those  that  utilize  the  products  or 
purchase  them. 

XII.  Estimate  all  the  products  in  a  woodlot,  or  those  in 
a  certain  portion,  and  figure  what  profit  can  be  made  by  har- 
vesting and  selling  the  products. 

XIII.  Study  the  reproduction  of  trees  in  the  woodlot  to 
find  under  what  conditions  of  soil  and  light  the  seeds  germi- 
nate and  the  seedlings  develop  the  best. 

XIV.  Visit  a  portable  sawmill  and  scale  logs  with  different 
log  rules  before  they  are  sawed,  and  measure  the  amount  of 
lumber  that  is  actually  sawed  out  of  the  logs,  and  compare  the 
results.    Determine  the  loss  due  to  defects  in  logs. 

XV.  Visit  a   woodlot   that   has  been   heavily   grazed   and 


APPENDIX  211 

another  that  has  been  recently  damaged  by  fire,  and  note  the 
injury  to  the  trees  and  the  forest  floor. 

XVI.  Make  a  list  of  trees  found  growing  in  bottom  lands, 
on  lower  and  upper  slopes  and  on  ridges. 

METHOD  OF  FINDING  THE  AREA  OF  A  WOODLOT  BY  THE  USE 
OF  AN  ORDINARY  COMPASS 

Farm  woodlots  are  usually  more  or  less  rectangular  in  out- 
line or  at  least  have  straight  sides,  and  areas  should  not  be 
difficult  to  find.  There  are  many  ways  of  finding  areas  of 
tracts  of  land.  The  one  described  is  one  of  the  simplest 
methods  and  can  be  carried  out  with  the  ordinary  compass 
reading  from  o  to  360  degrees,  that  can  be  purchased  for  a 
small  sum.  A  tape  for  measuring  the  sides  of  the  woodlot 
is  also  necessary,  although  a  stout  string  or  a  wire  carefully 
measured  can  be  used.  Although  a  simple  method,  the  one 
described,  if  carried  out  carefully,  will  give  very  accurate 
results. 

The  compass  is  set  up  at  one  corner  of  the  woodlot  (marked 
A  in  the  diagram)  so  that  the  direction  of  one  side  can  be 
seen.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  compass  should  set  exactly 
on  the  corner.  It  should  be  placed  where  the  direction  of  the 
side  of  the  woodlot  can  be  seen.  The  compass  is  for  giving 
the  direction  of  the  side  of  the  woodlot  and  nothing  more. 
The  compass  should  be  set  level,  with  the  hand  or  pointer 
when  at  rest  lying  exactly  over  the  point  marked  north.  It 
will  be  found  to  be  more  convenient  to  set  the  compass  on 
the  ground  rather  than  on  a  post  or  other  elevation. 

A  string  is  now  stretched  over  the  compass  in  the  direction 
of  the  side  of  the  woodlot  to  be  measured  (AB),  so  that  it 
passes  directly  over  the  center  of  the  compass  or  the  pin  hold- 
ing the  needle.  With  an  assistant  holding  the  end  of  the 
string  in  the  direction  of  the  line  to  be  run,  and  the  other 
end  held  a  short  distance  the  other  side  of  the  compass,  the 
direction  of  the  side  of  the  woodlot  can  be  judged  accurately. 


212 


APPENDIX 


The  compass  is  then  read  from  the  center  out  to  the  edge 
of  the  compass  in  the  direction  of  the  line  to  be  measured 
and  the  number  of  degrees  where  the  string  crosses  noted. 
The  distance  AB  or  the  side  of  the  woodlot  should  then  be 


Compass  reads  260 c 


Compass  reads  108 


1  inch 


Compass  reads  318° 


measured  accurately  in  feet  from  corner  to  corner.    The  meas- 
urements can  be  recorded  in  a  table  as  follows : 


Line 

AB 
BC 
CD 
Etc. 


Degrees 

108 
348 
260 


Distance 

527  feet 
450  feet 
387  feet 


The  compass  is  now  set  up  at  the  corner  B  in  the  same 
manner  as  before,   so   that   the  needle  on   the  compass   will 


APPENDIX 


213 


point  exactly  over  the  north  point  or  zero  point  when  at  rest. 
The  string  is  then  stretched  in  the  direction  of  the  second  side 
of  the  woodlot  (BC)  passing  accurately  over  the  center  of  the 
compass  and  the  number  of  degrees  noted.  The  side  (BC)  is 
then  measured  accurately  in  feet.  The  line  BC,  the  number  of 
degrees,  and  the  distance  are  then  recorded  in  the  table.  At 
each  succeeding  corner  the  same  method  should  be  followed. 
The  direction  of  the  line  is  found  by  means  of  the  compass  and 
string,  and  the  distance  measured  accurately, 


A  map  is  now  made  of  the  woodlot  from  the  data  in  the 
table.  The  method  of  drawing  the  map  is  similar  in  many 
respects  to  the  measuring  of  the  woodlot.  The  same  processes 
are  gone  through  with  on  paper.  The  same  compass  could 
be  used,  but  it  will  be  found  more  convenient  to  use  a  pro- 
tractor such  as  is  shown.  A  thin  piece  of  paper  can  be  laid 
over  this  protractor  and  traced  and  cut  out  for  use. 

In  drawing  the  map  the  top  of  the  paper  is  considered  north 
and  should  be  so  marked.  Then  the  bottom  of  the  paper  will 
be  south,  and  the  right  hand  edge  east,  and  the  left  hand  edge 
west.  In  drawing  the  map  it  is  often  a  help  to  lay  the  paper 
on  the  table  so  that  it  lies  in  a  north  and  south  direction. 

A  point  is  now  selected  on  the  paper  and  marked  A,  to 
correspond  with  the  first  corner  of  the  woodlot.  A  north  and 
south  line  and  an  east  and  west  line  are  now  drawn  through 


214 


APPENDIX 


the  point  lightly  as  shown  in  the  diagram.     These  correspond 
with  the  same  points  on  the  compass. 

Using  the  data  given  in  the  table  the  direction  of  the  line 
AB,  or  the  first  corner  of  the  woodlot  to  the  second  corner, 
is  108  degrees.  There  are  360  degrees  around  the  circle  of  a 


E-90° 


5-180° 


E-90' 


S-180* 


compass.  From  north  to  east  as  drawn  on  the  paper  through 
the  point  A  there  are  90  degrees.  This  will  leave  18  degrees 
over  to  make  the  108  degrees.  Place  the  protractor  so  that 
it  will  lie  between  the  east  and  south  lines  and  count  off  18 
degrees  and  mark  the  point  x.  The  line  AB  or  the  first  side 
of  the  woodlot  will  pass  from  the  point  A  through  this  point  x. 


APPENDIX  215 

From  the  table  the  length  of  the  side  AB  is  527  feet.  Using  a 
ruler  divided  off  into  inches  and  tenths  of  inches  and  consider- 
ing each  inch  on  the  ruler  to  be  100  feet,  lay  off  on  the  line 
Ax  extended,  5.27  inches.  Mark  this  point  B.  The  line  AB 
will  now  represent  the  first  side  of  the  woodlot. 

Through  the  point  B  as  before  draw  a  north  and  south  line 
and  an  east  and  west  line  and  proceed  to  map  the  side  BC 
of  the  woodlot.  From  the  table  the  direction  as  found  by  the 
compass  is  348  degrees  and  the  distance  450  feet.  Proceeding 
as  before  from  north  to  east  is  90  degrees,  from  north  to 
south  is  1 80  degrees  and  from  north  around  to  west  is  270 
degrees.  To  find  348  degrees  it  will  be  necessary  to  pass  78 
degrees  beyond  the  west  toward  the  north.  Place  the  pro- 
tractor so  that  it  will  lie  between  the  north  and  west  points 
as  shown  in  the  diagram  and  count  off  78  degrees  from  the 
west  point  and  mark  the  point  on  the  paper  x.  The  line  BC 
will  pass  through  this  point  x  from  the  point  B.  Now  with 
the  ruler  as  before,  allowing  100  feet  to  the  inch,  measure  off 
4.5  inches  for  the  450  feet  and  mark  the  point  C. 

Through  the  point  C  draw  the  east  and  west  lines  and 
north  and  south  lines  and  lay  off  260  degrees  as  noted  in 
the  table  for  the  next  line.  This  will  necessitate  passing  80 
degrees  beyond  the  south  point.  Lay  the  protractor  between 
the  south  and  west  points  and  count  off  80  degrees.  The 
line  BC  will  pass  through  the  point  found.  Measure  off  3.87 
inches  for  the  387  feet  and  mark  the  point  D.  In  like  manner 
all  the  corners  and  sides  of  the  woodlot  are  plotted  on  the 
paper. 

When  the  last  line  is  plotted,  if  the  end  of  the  line  as  drawn 
falls  very  close  to  the  point  A  or  the  starting  point,  the  work 
was  well  done.  If  the  points  do  not  come  closely  together 
some  mistake  was  made  either  in  the  field  work  or  in  drawing 
the  map,  and  the  work  should  be  done  over  again.  Otherwise 
the  last  line  should  be  drawn  from  the  last  corner  to  A,  so  that 
the  map  will  close. 


216 


APPENDIX 


After  the  map  is  drawn  and  closed  the  area  must  be  found. 
Using  one  side  of  the  woodlot  or  map  as  a  base,  as  shown  in 
the  diagram,  mark  it  off  in  inches,  carrying  the  line  out  if 
necessary  beyond  the  map.  At  each  inch  mark  erect  lines 
perpendicular  to  the  base  line.  Then  divide  these  lines  off 
into  inches  from  the  base  line  and  draw  lines  through  them 
parallel  to  the  base  line,  thus  dividing  the  entire  map  into 
square  inches. 

Each  square  inch  represents  an  area  100  feet  by  100  feet 


and  contains  10,000  square  feet.  In  the  diagram  there  are  9 
complete  square  inches,  making  90,000  square  feet.  The  areas 
of  the  imperfect  squares  must  now  be  found.  Divide  each  of 
these  squares  into  quarters  as  shown,  each  of  which  will  be 
50  feet  by  50  feet,  containing  2500  square  feet.  Cross  off 
every  perfect  quarter  inch  square.  There  are  10  of  these  in 
the  diagram,  making  25,000  square  feet.  Now  divide  each 
imperfect  quarter  inch  square  into  quarters.  These  will  be 
25  feet  by  25  feet  each  containing  625  square  feet.  In  the 
diagram  there  are  25  of  these  perfect,  making  16,875  square 
feet.  The  imperfect  squares  remaining  around  the  edges  of  the 


APPENDIX  217 

map  can  now  be  combined  to  make  perfect  squares.  For  exam- 
ple, number  2.  can  be  combined  with  number  6  to  make  a  per- 
fect square,  and  number  3  with  number  5.  Proceed  in  this  way 
until  the  entire  area  of  the  map  has  been  accounted  for.  The 
sum  of  all  the  different  squares  in  the  map  will  give  the  area 
of  the  woodlot  in  square  feet.  If  this  sum  is  divided  by  43,560, 
the  number  of  square  feet  in  an  acre,  the  number  of  acres 
in  the  woodlot  will  be  found. 

Bulletins  and  Circulars  giving  information  on  Farm  For- 
estry.— Publications  of  the  State  Forestry  Department  and  of 
the  State  Agricultural  College  on  the  establishment  of  farm 
woodlots  and  their  care  and  protection,  the  kinds  of  trees  to 
plant,  the  wood-using  industries  of  the  state,  and  the  market- 
ing of  woodlot  products. 

Bulletins  and  Circulars  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service, 
a  list  of  which  can  be  obtained  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  The  following  relate  to  Farm 
Forestry  and  can  be  obtained  from  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C.,  by  sending  a  postal 
money  order  for  the  amount: 

U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletins: 

36  Woodman's  Handbook $0.25 

42  Woodlot  Handbook   for  owners  of  woodlands  in 

southern  New  England 15 

76  How  to  grow  and  plant  conifers  in  the  Northeastern 

States    10 

78  Wood  Preservation  in  the  United  States 10 

86  Windbreaks,  their  influence  and  value .30 

U.  S.  Forest  Service  Circulars : 

61  How  to  transplant  forest  trees $0.05 

69  Fence  post  trees 05 

96  Arbor  Day,  suggestions  for  its  observance 05 

99  Suggestions    for   forest   planting  on   the   semi-arid 

plains    05 


218  APPENDIX 

1 17  Preservative  treatment  of  fence  posts 05 

145  Forest  planting  on  the  western  Prairies 05 

195  Forest  planting  in  the  Northeast  and  Lake  States. .       .05 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture: 

Bulletin    153 — Forest   planting   in   the   Eastern   United 

States    $0.10 

Year  Book,  Department  of  Agriculture: 
Separate  No.  651 — The  farm  woodlot  problem $0.10 

Farmers'  Bulletin: 

134  Tree  planting  on  rural  school  grounds $0.05 

173  Primer  of  Forestry,  Part  I    05 

358  Primer  of  Forestry,  Part  II 05 

228  Forest  Planting  and  Farm  Management 05 

423  Forest  nurseries  for  schools 05 

582  Uses  for  chestnut  timber  killed  by  bark  disease 05 

622  Basket  willow  culture 05 

715  Measuring  and  marketing  woodlot  products 05 


TABLES 


219 


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vO    O    Tj-00    CN    O    Tj-OO 
MCNCNCNCOT}-rJ-Tl- 

t^ 

CN    IOOO    Tj-CO    CN    Tj-OO 
MMMCNCNCOCOCO 

H 

00     O     CN     Tt-00     CN     Tj-00 
M     M     M     M     CM     CN     CN 

^ 

§ 

! 

!r; 

EI 

J 

a 

00     O     CN     »^VO  CO     O     CN 

220 


TABLES 


TABLE  3.— AREA  OF  CIRCLES  IN  SQUARE  FEET 


Diam. 
Ins. 

Area 
Sq.ft. 

Diam. 
Ins. 

Area 
Sq.ft. 

Diam. 
Ins. 

Area 
Sq.ft. 

Diam. 
Ins. 

Area 
Sq.ft. 

Diam. 
Ins. 

Area 
Sq.ft. 

I  .O 

.005 

13.0 

0.92 

25.0 

3-41 

37-o 

7-47 

49.0 

13.10 

1-5 

.012 

13-5 

0.99 

25-5 

3-55 

37-5 

7.67 

49-5 

!3-37 

2.O 

.022 

14.0 

1.07 

26.0 

3-69 

38.0 

7.88 

50.0 

13-64 

2-5 

•034 

14-5 

I-I5 

26.5 

3-83 

38.5 

8.08 

50.5 

i3-9i 

3-o 

.049 

15-0 

•23 

27.0 

3-98 

39-o 

8.30 

51-0 

14.19 

3-5 

.067 

15-5 

•31 

27-5 

4.12 

39-5 

8-51 

51-5 

14-47 

4.0 

.087 

16.0 

.40 

28.0 

4.28 

40.0 

8-73 

52.0 

14-75 

4-5 

.  Ill 

16.5 

.48 

28.5 

4-43 

40.5 

8-95 

52-5 

I5-03 

5-o 

.136 

17.0 

•58 

29.0 

4-59 

41  .0 

9.17 

53-o 

J5-32 

5-5 

.165 

17-5 

.67 

29-5 

4-75 

4i-5 

9-39 

53-5 

J5-59 

6.0 

.196 

18.0 

•77 

30.0 

4.91 

42.0 

9.62 

54-0 

J5-90 

6-5 

.230 

18.5 

.87 

30-5 

5-07 

42-5 

9-85 

54-5 

16.  20 

7.0 

.267 

19.0 

•97 

31.0 

5-24 

43-o 

10.  08 

55-o 

16.50 

7-5 

-307 

19-5 

2.07 

31-5 

5-4i 

«3-S 

10.32 

55-5 

16.80 

8.0 

•349 

20.  o 

2.18 

32.0 

5-59 

44.0 

10.56 

56.0 

17.10 

8-5 

•394 

20.5 

2.29 

32.5 

5-76 

44-5 

10.  80 

56.5 

17.41 

9-0 

•  442 

21  .0 

2.41 

33-o 

5-94 

45-o 

II  .04 

57-o 

17.72 

95 

.492 

21-5 

2.52 

33-5 

6.12 

45-5 

II  .  29 

57-5 

18.03 

IO.O 

•545 

22.  O 

2.64 

34-0 

6.30 

46.0 

u-54 

58.0 

18-35 

10.5 

.601 

22.5 

2.76 

34-5 

6.49 

46.5 

11.79 

58.5 

18.67 

n  .0 

.660 

23.0 

2.89 

35-o 

6.68 

47.0 

12.05 

59-o 

18.99 

n-5 

.721 

23-5 

3.01 

35-5 

6.87 

47-5 

12  .  26 

59-5 

J9-3i 

12.0 

.785 

24.0 

3-H 

36.0 

7.07 

48.0 

12-57 

60.0 

19.63 

12-5 

.852 

24-5 

3-27 

36.5 

7.27 

48.5 

12.83 

60.5 

19.96 

TABLES 


221 


TABLE  4.— WHITE  PINE 

SOUTHERN  NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

From  the  Woodman's  Handbook,  U.  S.  Forest  Service 


Diameter, 
Breast- 
high. 

HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET). 

30 

40 

so 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

no 

120 

VOLUME  (BOARD  FEET) 

Inches 
5  
6  

S.  ...... 

Q.  .  , 

8 

13 
18 

24 
32 
4i 

12 
2O 
28 
36 

44 
53 
63 
73 
84 

95 
105 

15 

23 
34 
45 
56 
70 
84 

100 

117 
137 
158 
181 
209 
238 
270 
302 

27 
39 
53 
69 

85 
103 

125 
148 

173 

200 
230 
26l 
297 
336 

379 
425 

29 
44 
62 
81 

IO2 
126 

151 
1  80 
210 
241 
277 
313 
352 

393 
436 
480 
522 
566 

93 
119 

147 

177 

210 

243 
282 

323 
368 
411 
460 
506 

553 
597 
639 
674 
706 
737 

138 
168 
200 
238 
277 
321 
370 
421 
475 
530 
583 
634 
681 

727 
769 
809 
846 

228 
270 
312 
362 
415 
47i 
53i 
598 
660 
720 
779 
834 
889 
942 
994 
1046 

245 
293 
348 

406 
470 

540 

610 

682 
750 
820 
887 
958 
1030 
1105 
1180 

688 

763 
840 
918 
990 
1065 
U35 

IO  
II  
12  
13  
14  
15  

16  
17  

18  
19-'  

20  
21  
22  
2T, 

24  
25  
26  

27 

222 


TABLES 


TABLE  5.— RED  OR  NORWAY  PINE 

From  The  Woodman's  Handbook,  U.  S.  Forest  Service 


Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET). 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

VOLUME  (BOARD  FEET). 

Inches. 
7  

i? 
29 

44 
61 
80 

100 

1  20 
140 

24 
38 
53 
72 
92 
114 
138 
164 
190 

50 
68 
88 
no 
136 
1  60 
189 
220 
252 

81 
104 
130 

159 

189 

222 

257 
296 

334 

372  . 

94 
119 
148 
1  80 
214 
250 
292 
340 
394 
450 

8  

o.  . 

10  

I  I 

I  2 

13  
14  

icr 

16       ... 

17 

18.        .  . 

TABLE  6.— SPRUCE 

VOLUME  TABLE  IN  BOARD  FEET 

From  The  Woodman's  Handbook,  U.  S.  Forest  Service 


HEIGHT  IN  FEET. 


Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

40 

So 

60 

70 

80' 

VOLUME  (BOARD  FEET). 

Inches. 
7 

18 

29 
42 

58 
76 
96 

25 
38 
53 
67 
84 

IOO 

H3 
129 

30 
45 
61 
78 
94 

112 
I30 
148  - 

166 
1  86 

208 

35 
53 
7i 
9i 
no 
130 

151 
172 

195 
219 

244 
272 
308 
346 

194 
219 
245 
275 
305 
343 
400 

8  


10 

ii  

I  2 

X3 

Id. 

T  (T 

16       ... 

17 

!g        

IO 

20      

TABLES 


223 


TABLE  7.— SPRUCE 

VOLUME  or  UNPEELED  PULP  WOOD  IN  CUBIC  FEET,  SOUTHERN  NEW 
HAMPSHIRE 

From  The  Woodman's  Handbook,  U.  S.  Forest  Service 


Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET) 

40 

so 

60 

70 

80 

90 

VOLUME  (CUBIC  FEET) 

Inches. 
5  

1.9 
3-5 
5-0 
6.6 

8-5 

2-5 

4-2 

6.2 

8.4 
10.8 
13-5 
16.5 
19-5 

3-o 

5-2 
7-5 

10.  0 

12.7 

15.6 

18.8 
22.3 
26.0 
30.0 
34-5 
39-° 
43-5 
48.0 

53-o 
58.0 

6.4 
9.0 
11.7 
14.8 
18.0 
21-5 
25-4 
29-5 
34-0 
38.5 
43-5 
49.0 

54-5 
60.5 
67.0 
74.0 
8i-5 
88.5 
95-5 

IO2.O 
IO9.O 

34-5 

39-5 
44.0 
49.0 
55-o 
61  .0 
67.5 
74-5 
82.0 
89.0 
96.5 
104-5 

112.  O 
120.0 
128.0 
135-5 

63.5 
70.0 
77.0 
83.5 
90-5 
98.0 

106.0 
114.0 
123.0 

I3I-5 
140.0 

148.5 

6  

7 

8  

10  

II  

12  
13  
14  
15  

16  

17-'  
18  

TQ 

2O  
21 

22 

23 

24. 

25  
26 

27 

28 

224 


TABLES 


TABLE  8— HEMLOCK  IN  BOARD  FEET 

From  Report  N.  H.  Forest  Commission  for  1906-7 


Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

TOTAL  HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET) 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

Inches. 

6  

7  
8  

5 
10 

i? 
26 

36 
47 
60 

20 
28 
36 
46 
58 
72 
88 
107 
126 
148 

30 

39 
49 
59 
72 
86 
104 
125 
148 
171 
197 

42 
50 
60 

7i 
86 
103 
124 

H7 
172 

200 
233 

86 
103 
123 
148 

i73 
204 
240 
281 

9  

10  

ii  

12  
13  
14  
I"\  .  . 

16  

17  

TABLES 


225 


TABLE  9.— BEECH  IN  PENNSYLVANIA,  VOLUMES  IN  CUBIC  FEET 

From  Bulletin  285,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 


Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

TOTAL  HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET) 

70 

80 

90 

IOO 

no 

VOLUME  OF  LOGS  INCLUDING  BARK  (CUBIC  FEET) 

Inches. 
8  

9  
10  

8.8 
11.4 

14-3 
17.7 

21  .O 
26.O 
30.0 
35-0 

IO.  I 
13.0 
16.4 

20.  o 

24.0 

29.0 
34-0 
40.0 
46.0 
52.0 
58.0 
64.0 
70.0 

n-3 
14.6 
18.4 
23.0 
28.0 
33-0 
39-o 
45-o 
52.0 
58.0 
65.0 
72.0 
79.0 
86.0 
92.0 
99.0 
106.0 
113.0 

20 

25 
31 

37 
43 
50 
57 
65 
72 
80 
88 

95 
103 
no 
118 
125 
133 
141 
149 

157 
164 

34 
40 

47 
55 
63 
7i 
80 
88 
96 
105 
H3 

122 
I30 

138 
I46 

155 
l64 

173 

181 

II 

12 

I? 

14.  . 

IS.  . 

16  
17  

18  
10 

20.  .. 

21  

22  

23.-.  . 

24  

25  

26  

27  

28  

29  

3O  

226 


TABLES 


TABLE  10.— VOLUME  OF  CHESTNUT  IN  CUBIC  FEET 

From  Bulletin  96,  U.  S.  Forest  Service 


Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET) 

20 

30 

40 

So 

60 

70 

80 

90 

VOLUME 

Inches. 
IO  
II  
12  

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 
10-5 

12.8 

15-4 

18.2 

Cu.ft. 
12.5 
15-3 
18.4 
21.7 
25.0 
28.8 
32-6 
36.5 
40.5 
44-3 
49.0 

Cu.ft. 
14-5 
17.9 

21-5 

25.2 
29.2 
33-6 
38.1 
42.7 
47-4 
5i-4 
58.5 
65.0 
71.0 
78.0 
85.5 
93  -0 

Cu.ft. 
16.6 
20.7 
25-0 
29.1 

111 

44.0 

49-5 
55-5 
61.5 
68.5 
75-5 
83.0 
91.0 

99-5 
108.5 

Cu.ft. 
17.8 
22.5 
27.4 
32.1 
37-7 
43-4 
49-5 
56.0 
63.0 
70.0 
78.0 
86.0 
95  -o 
104.0 
114.0 
124.0 

Cu.ft. 
19.0 

24-3 
30.0 

35-3 
41-3 
48.0 

F* 

63.0 

70.5 
79.0 
88.0 
97.0 
106.5 
117.0 
128.0 
140.0 

13  
14. 

JC 

16 

17 

18 

IO 

20 

21 

22 

22 

24 

2<r 

TABLES 


227 


TABLE  11.— VOLUME  OF  CHESTNUT  IN  LUMBER 

From  Bulletin  96,  U.  S.  Forest  Service 


Diameter,  Breast-high. 

HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET) 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

VOLUME  IN  BOARD  FEET 

Inches. 

Bd.ft. 

10 

26 
42 
58 
74 
92 
no 
129 

Bd.ft. 
15 
32 
50 
68 

87 
107 
127 
150 
174 
198 
223 
250 
276 
305 
333 
363 
396 

Bd.ft. 

22 
40 
58 
78 
IOO 
122 

147 
172 
2OO 

227 

257 
288 
3i8 
350 
385 
420 

457 

Bd.ft. 

48 
69 
92 
116 
141 
168 
196 
226 

257 
292 

327 
363 
400 
440 
479 
520 

Bd.ft. 

56 
80 
107 

133 
160 
190 

222 

255 
291 
328 
368 
409 
451 

493 
538 
583 

IO  

II 

12 

12 

14 

It. 

16  

17.  . 

18  

19  

20  

21  

22 

22 

24 

2C 

228 


TABLES 


TABLE  12.— VOLUME  OF  RED,    BLACK,    AND  SCARLET   OAK,  IN 

CUBIC  FEET 

Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin  96 


HEIGHT 

OF  TREE 

(FEET) 

[Diameter,  Breast- 
high. 

20 

30 

40 

SO 

60 

70 

80 

VOLUME 

Inches. 
2  

Cu.ft. 
o  3 

Cu.ft. 
o  4 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 

3  
4  

6.....  '.'.  '  .  '..    . 

0.9 

i-5 
2.4 

I.O 
2.O 
2.9 

4    2 

2.6 

3-6 
cr  o 

6  o 

7.  . 

c    7 

6  6 

7  6 

8.9 

8  

7  ° 

8  5 

IO    2 

12.  O 

9  
10  

8.7 

IO.  Z 

10.9 
i"?  .  i 

13.0 

ic  7 

15-2 
18.4 

17-3 

21    O 

ii  

12        

13.0 
16.4 

16.0 
10.  7 

19.0 

22    8 

22.  I 
26.  2 

25.2 
2O.  3 

I  3 

21  .O 

24     T. 

27  7 

31  .O 

•2  A.  -2 

14 

2"?.  3 

2O    O 

12    6 

36.  ^ 

40  o 

je 

3O.  2 

34-  2 

38.1 

42  .O 

4^.8 

16         

40  o 

44.  1 

48.2 

^2  .A 

17 

c.4.6 

^O.  I 

T8         

61  .0 

66.0 

IO 

68  o 

74   O 

TABLES 


229 


TABLE  13.— VOLUME  OF    RED,  BLACK,  AND    SCARLET   OAKS  IN 

LUMBER 

ITaken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin  96 


Diameter,  Breast-high 

HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET) 

So 

60 

70 

80 

VOLUME 

Inches. 

Bd.ft. 
14 
24 

35 
48 
62 
78 
95 
114 

Bd.ft. 
17 
30 
45 
60 

77 
96 
117 
140 

Bd.ft. 

21 

38 
56 

75 
94 
117 
141 
168 

195 

224 

254 

Bd.ft. 

49 
68 
89 

H3 
140 
1  68 
198 
229 
263 
300 

10       

II  
12     . 

1-2 

Id. 

I  r 

16 

17 

18                ... 

IO 

230 


TABLES 


TABLE   14.— VOLUME  OF  WHITE  AND    CHESTNUT  OAK,   IN 
CUBIC  FEET 

From  Bulletin  96.  U.  S.  Forest  Service 


HEIGHT 

OF  TRE 

E    (FEET 

1  -• 

Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

so 

Total 
Basis. 

VOLUME 

Inches. 
2  

Cu.ft. 

O.  T. 

Cu.ft. 
0.4 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.ft. 

Trees. 
26 

•z  .  . 

O.Q 

i  .0 

cc 

4  

I  .  C 

2  .O 

2.6 

?4 

c.  . 

2  .4 

2  .O 

3.6 

46 

6  

4-  2 

5.0 

6.0 

38 

7  

5  •  7 

6.6 

7.6 

8.9 

36 

8 

7   4 

8   7 

10  •? 

12    2 

IO 

9-3 

II  .  I 

13  .5 

16.0 

18.9 

10 

II     2 

17      7 

16  < 

10    ^ 

22    6 

> 

ii 

1  3    3 

16  c. 

10  8 

2^    2 

26  8 

14 

12 

1C   7 

IQ    3 

2^    I 

27    2 

•21     A 

I 

12 

22    4 

26  o 

31    ^ 

36  •* 

2 

14. 

2^    O 

31    O 

^6    3 

41  6 

J 

1C 

-2CT      r 

41  7 

48  i 

16 

AO      ^ 

47    ^ 

^  o 

Total 

2Q3 

Volumes  include  stem  and  topwood,  with  bark,  up  to  a  mini- 
mum diameter  of  2  inches.  Average  stump  heights  vary  from 
6  inches  for  small  trees  to  21  inches  for  large  ones. 


TABLES 


231 


TABLE  15.— WHITE  OAK 

VOLUME  IN  BOARD  FEET  BY  THE  DOYLE-SCRIBNER  RULE,  SOUTHERN  APPA- 
LACHIAN REGION 

From  the  Woodman's  Handbook 


Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET) 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

no 

120 

VOLUME  (BOARD  FEET) 

Inches. 
14  

55 
80 

100 

125 
ISO 

175 

200 
225 
250 
280 
305 

335 

70 
95 
H5 
140 

165 
190 

215 
245 
275 
305 
335 
365 
400 

435 
470 

90 
H5 
140 

165 
190 

220 
250 
280 
3IO 
340 

375 
410 

445 
480 
520 

H5 
140 

165 
195 

225 

255 
285 
320 
355 
390 
425 
465 
505 
545 
585 

195 
225 
260 
295 
335 
375 
4i5 
455 
500 
545 
590 
635 
685 

400 

450 
495 
545 
595 
645 
695 
750 
805 

865 
920 
980 

I  c 

16 

17  
18  

19  
20  

21  
22 

23 

24 

25  
26  

27  '  
28  

232 


TABLES 


TABLE    16.— SUGAR    MAPLE    IN    PENNSYLVANIA,    VOLUMES   IN 

CUBIC  FEET 

From  Bulletin  285,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 


Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

TOTAL  HEIGHT  OF  TREE  (FEET) 

70 

80 

90 

IOO 

no 

VOLUME  OF  LOGS  INCLUDING  BARK  (CUBIC  FEET) 

Inches. 
IO 

13-6 
16.7 
20.  o 

24.0 
28.0 
32-0 

15-6 
19.1 
23.0 
27.0 
32.0 
37-o 
43-0 
49.0 
55-o 
62.0 
69.0 

17-5 

21  .0 
26.O 
31.0 
36.0 
42.O 
48.0 

55-o 
62.0 
70.0 
78.0 
89.0 
96.0 
104.0 
113.0 

122.0 

19-5 
24.O 
29.0 

34-o 
40.0 
46.0 
53-o 
61  .0 
69.0 
78.0 
8.7.0 
96.0 
106.0 
116.0 
126.0 
136.0 
145.0 
i55-o 
164.0 

32 

37 
44 
5i 
59 
67 
76 
85 
95 
106 
117 
128 

139 
149 
1  60 
171 
181 

II  
12 

J-2 

14 

15  

16  

17  

18  

19  
20  

21  
22  

23  
24  

25  
26 

27 

28 

TABLE  17— SECOND  GROWTH   SUGAR  MAPLE,    VOLUMES  IN 
BOARD  FEET 

From  Bulletin  176,  Vermont  Agri.  Exp.  Station 


Diameter,  Breast-high. 

50 

60 

70 

80 

Inches. 
7 

Bd.ft. 
18 

Bd.ft. 
18 

Bd.ft. 
18 

Bd.ft. 
36 

8          

24 

36 

42 

42 

42 

5° 

62 

74 

10       

68 

74 

82 

II   

9° 

9° 

96 

12  

IOO 

126 

126 

T2 

118 

144 

1  60 

180 

1  86 

TABLES 


233 


TABLE  18.— SECOND  GROWTH  YELLOW  POPLAR 

VOLUME  IN  BOARD  FEET  BY  THE  SCRIBNER  RULE,  FAIRFAX  COUNTY,  VA. 
From  Woodman's  Handbook,  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


HEIGHT 

OF  TREE 

(FEET) 

Diameter, 
Breast-high. 

40 

SO 

60 

?o 

80 

90 

100 

VOLUME 

(BOARD 

FEET) 

Inches. 

7 

2 

7 

12 

16 

8  

tr 

II 

17 

23 

20 

o  . 

Q 

17 

2=? 

32 

41 

48 

10  

Itr 

2< 

35 

4$ 

56 

67 

78 

II  

22 

36 

48 

6l 

74 

88 

IOO 

12  

32 

5° 

65 

80 

94 

no 

123 

13 

66 

84 

IOI 

117 

1  34- 

14.8 

14. 

106 

124 

142 

160 

177 

Itr 

1  20 

I^O 

172 

IOI 

212 

16         .... 

170 

202 

22<; 

2^O 

17 

2IO 

236 

264 

288 

18     

274 

3OA 

328 

10.  . 

318 

346 

374 

20 

3Q^ 

428 

BOOKS    ON   FORESTRY 

These  may  be  ordered  through  the  A  merican  Forestry  Association,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Prices  are  by  mail  or  express  prepaid 

FOREST  VALUATION— Filibert  Roth $1.50 

FOREST   REGULATION— Filibert  Roth 2.00 

PRACTICAL   TREE   REPAIR— By  Elbert  Peets 2.00 

THE   LUMBER   INDUSTRY— By  R.  S.  Kellogg 1.10 

FOREST   VALUATION— By  H.  H.  Chapman 2.00 

TREES,  SHRUBS,  VINES  AND  HERBACEOUS  PERENNIALS— By  John  Kirkegaard  1.50 
TREES  AND  SHRUBS — By  Charles  Sprague  Sargent — Vol.  I  and   II,  4  Parts  to  a 

Volume— per  Part 5.00 

THE   TRAINING    OF   A   FORESTER— Gifford  Pinchot 1.12 

LUMBER   AND   ITS   USES— R.  S.  Kellogg 1.15 

THE    CARE    OF   TREES   IN   LAWN,    STREET   AND   PARK— B.  E.  Fernow. /....  2.17 

NORTH   AMERICAN    TREES— N.  L.  Britton 7.30 

KEY   TO    THE   TREES— Collins  and  Preston 1.50 

THE   FARM    WOODLOT— E.  G.  Cheyney  and  J.  P.  Wentling 1.70 

AMERICAN   FOREST   TREES— Henry  H.  Gibson 6.00 

IDENTIFICATION  OF  THE  .ECONOMIC  WOODS   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES— 

Samuel  J.  Record 1.25 

FOREST  MENSURATION— Henry  Solon  Graves 4.00 

THE   ECONOMICS    OF   FORESTRY— B.  E.  Fernow 1.61 

FIRST   BOOK   OF   FORESTRY— Filibert  Roth 1.10 

PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY— Samuel  B.  Green 1.50 

FAMILIAR  TREES— G.  S.  Boulger 1.50 

MANUAL  OF  THE  TREES  OF   NORTH  AMERICA  exclusive  of  Mexico— Charles 

Sprague  Sargent 6.00 

AMERICAN   WOODS— Romeyn  B.  Hough 5.00 

HANDBOOK  OF  THE  TREES  OF  THE  NORTHERN  U.  S.  AND  CANADA,  EAST 

OF   THE   ROCKY    MOUNTAINS— Romeyn  B.  Hough 6.00 

GETTING   ACQUAINTED    WITH   THE   TREES— J.  Horace  McFarland 1.75 

PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD:    THEIR  CHARACTERISTIC  PROPERTIES— 

Charles  Henry  Snow 3.50 

NORTH   AMERICAN   FORESTS   AND   FORESTRY— E.  R.  Bruncken 2.00 

HANDBOOK   OF   TIMBER   PRESERVATION— Samuel  M.  Rowe 4.00 

TREES   OF   NEW  ENGLAND— L.  L.  Dame  and  Henry  Brooks .,  1.50 

TREES,  SHRUBS  AND  VINES  OF  THE  NORTHEASTERN  UNITED  STATES— 

H.  E.  Parkhurst 1.50 

TREES— H.  Marshall  Ward 1.50 

OUR   NATIONAL   PARKS— John  Muir 1.91 

THE   LONGLEAF   PINE   IN   VIRGIN   FOREST— G.  Frederick  Schwartz 75 

LOGGING— Ralph  C.  Bryant 3.50 

THE   IMPORTANT   TIMBER   TREES    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES— S.  B.  Elliott.  2.50 

FORESTRY   IN  JSEW   ENGLAND— Ralph  C.  Hawley  and  Austin  F.  Hawes 3.50 

THE   PRINCIPLES    OF   HANDLING   WOODLANDS— Henry  Solon  Graves 1.50 

SHADE   TREES   IN   TOWNS   AND    CITIES— William  Solotaroff 3.00 

THE   TREE   GUIDE— By  Julia  Ellen  Rogers 1.00 

FOREST   PHYSIOGRAPHY— By  Isaiah  Bowman 5.00 

MANUAL   FOR   NORTHERN   WOODSMEN— Austin  Gary 2.12 

FARM   FORESTRY— Alfred  Akerman 57 

THE  THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS     in  forest    organization 

—A.  B.  Recknagel 2.10 

ELEMENTS    OF  FORESTRY— F.  F.  Moon  and  N.  C.  Brown 2.20 

MECHANICAL   PROPERTIES    OF   WOOD— Samuel  J.  Record 1.75 

STUDIES    OF   TREES— J.  J.  Levison 1.75 

TREE   PRUNING— A.  Des  Cars 66 

THE   PRESERVATION    OF   STRUCTURAL   TIMBER— Howard  F.  Weiss 3.00 

THE   PRACTICAL   LUMBERMAN— By  Bernard  Brereton  (third  edition) 1.50 

SEEDING   AND   PLANTING— J.  W.  Tourney 3.50 

HANDBOOK   FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN— J.  L.  B.  Taylor 2.50 


SPECIES  INDEX 


COMMON  NAMES 


Ash,  15,  22,  45,  47,  98,  145,  199 

green,  60,  86 

white,  62,  94 
Aspen,  26 

Basswood,  98 

Beech,  17,  23,  26,  97,  101,  120,  152, 

198 
Birch,  n,  44,  47,  152,  192,  194 

gray,  22 

river,  46 

yellow,  22 
Blue  beech,  112 
Box  elder,  85,  199 
Butternut,  44,  45 

Catalpa,  15,  28,  47,  60,  98 

hardy,  88 
Cedar,  22,  198 

red,  62,  78,  192 
Cherry,  black,  15,  45,  82,  145 
Chestnut,  15,  22,  23,  33,  44,  62,  85, 

98,   101,   120,    154,    198 

Coffeetree,  62,  80 

Conifers,  14 

Cottonwood,  15,   22,  60,  62,  81,  98 

189,  192 
Cypress,  bald,  14 


Dogwood,  26 
Douglas  fir,  61 


Elm,  13,  15,  44,  46,  62,  198 

white,  79 
Evergreens,  14,  47,  51 

Fir,  50  189 

Hackberry,  87 
Hardwoods,  13,  14,  23 
Hemlock,  22,  26,  189 
Hickory  n,  22,  44,  98,  J2O,  154 

pignut,  93 

shagbark,  92 
Holly,  14 

Iron  wood,  112 

Larch,  14 

European,  59,  Co,  61,  62,  78 
Locust,  15,  47,  149,  192,  198 

black,  60,  62,  83,  97,  98 

honey,  13,  89,  91 

Mahogany,  192 
Maple,  152,  194 

hard,  8,  47,  60,  123,  199 

red,  46 

silver,  46,  60,  94,  101 

soft,  199 

sugar,  93,98,  123 

Oaks,  n,  15,  16,  17,  22,  44,  101 
burr,  45 


235 


236 

Oaks,  live.  14 

red,  45,  60,  62,91,  154 
white,  62,  145,  149,  198 

Osage  orange,  62,  90 

Pines,  15,  44,  50,  101,  189 
jack,  26,  75 
loblolly,  97 
pitch,  22,  26,  45,  97 
red,  59,  61,  74 
Scotch,  45,  60,  61,  75 
shortleaf,  97 
western  yellow,  61 
white,  45,  59,  60,  61,  73 

Poplars,  46,  49,  97,  192,  199 
yellow,  62,  145,  194 

Redwood,  25,  97,  192 


SPECIES  INDEX 

Russian  mulberry,  91 

Spruce,  u,  13,  26,  50,  in 

Norway,  60,  61,  77 

white,  6  1,  76 
Sycamore,  17,  192,  199 

Tulip  poplar,  15,  22,  26,  47,  96,  101, 


Walnut,  n,  44,  45,  101,  120,  198 
black,  28,  60,  84,  145,  192 
butternut,  120 

White  pine,  40,  59,  60,  61,  73 

Wild  pulm,  23,  97 

Willow,  15,  22,  23,  46,  49,  98,  145,  X92 
white,  95 

Yellow  poplar,  96,  145,  194 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Abandoned  lands,  2 
Absorption,  13,  20 
Adventitious  buds,  15 
Age  of  a  tree,  17 

to  cut,  140 

Agriculture  and  forestry,  3 
Annual  cut  of  woodlot,  138 
Annual  growth,  138 
Annual  income,  139 
Annual  rings,  18,  19,  40,  154 
Annual  yield,  140 
Appendix,  207 
Area  of  circles,  220 
Area  of  woodlot,  209 

by  compass,  211 

Bark,  17' 

Basket  willow,  1 20 

Bast,  17 

Board  foot,  169,  209 

Board  measure,  169,  172 

Bole,  12 

region  of,  30 
Broadcast  sowing,  43 
Browntail  moth,  128 
Buds,  14 

adventitious,  15 

dormant,  15 
Bulletins,  list  of,  217 

Cambium  layer,  17 
Canopy,  29 


Carbon  bisulphide,  129 
Care  of  trees  in  cutting,  157 
Central  Hardwood  Region,  65 
Christmas  trees,  71 
Circulars,  list  of,  218 
Circulation,  21 
Cleanings,  105,  njs 
Climate,  9,  56 
Clinometer,  178 
Collection  of  seed,  46 
Color  of  wood,  196 
Contract  for  selling,  158,  169 
Coppice,  34,  154 

compound,  99 

method  of,  97 
Contents  of  trees,  209 
Cord,  139,  150 
Cord  measure,  1 70 
Cord  wood,  150,  209 
Cost  of  harvesting  the  woodlot,  160 
Cost  of  logging,  151 
Cost  of  manufacture,  161 
Creosoting,  149,  198 

brush  method,  201 

dipping,  202 

open  tank,  202 
Crossties,  148 

Crown,  12,  29,  36,  37,  40,  108 
Cubic  contents,  175 
Cubic  foot,  171 
Cubic  measure,  171 
Cultivation  of  forest  plantation,  104 


237 


238 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Cuttings,  49,  120 
clear-cutting,  99 

Damage  suits,  141 
Damage  to  woodlot  by  owner,  135 
Damping  off,  50 
Diameters  of  trees,  177 
Digestion,  21 
Distillation  of  wood,  152 
Durability,  192 
of  fence  posts,  198 

Elasticity,  195 

Erosion,  planting  to  prevent,  71 

Estimating  timber,  180,  209 

cord  wood,  186 

for  large  woodlot,  184 

for  small  woodlot,  182 

Farmers'  bulletins,  list  of,  218 
Farm  forestry  practicums,  207 
Factors  of  site,  24 

Fence  posts,  5,   7,  60,  62,  89,   149, 
154,  198 

charring  of,  200 

trees  to  plant  for,  62 
Fire,  130 

protection  from,  132 
Firewood,  146,  170 
Flexibility  of  wood,  195 
Forest  capital,  138 
Forests  defined,  29 

high  forests,  34 
Forest  floor,  31 
Fruit,  15 

Fuel  value  of  woods,  196 
Fuel  wood,  7,  61,  89,  92,  94,  107 
Fungi,  41,  50,  61,  126,  130,  200 

Game  preserves,  8 

Grazing,  117,  134 

injury  by,  127 


Great  Plains,  42 
Ground  cover,  31 
Growth,  annual,  138 

height,  19,  40 

in  diameter,  40 

period  of,  37 

rapidity  of,  107 
Gullied  lands,  planting  of,  71 
Gypsy  moth,  128 

Hardness  of  wood,  199 
Hardwoods,  time  of  planting,  51 

woodlots,  42 

Harvesting  the  woodlot,  153 
Heart  wood,  17 
Heights  of  trees,  177,  209 
Holt,  122 
Humus,  31 
Hypsometer,  177 

Insects,  41,  61,  128 

Lake  States,  60,  76 

region,  65 
Leaves,  12,  13 
Life  processes  of  trees,  20 
Light,  26 

Location  of  woodlot,  6 
Log  rules,  Doyle,  173,  219 

Doyle-Scribner,  174 

International,  174 

Scribner,  173,  219 
Logging  costs,  165,  167 
Lumber,  145 

grades  of,  146 

seasoning  of,  147 

trees  to  plant  for,  61 
Lumbering,  160 

Maple  sugar,  93 

management  of  sugar  bush,  120 


GENERAL  INDEX 


239 


Mine  timber,  160 
Moisture,  27 

Natural    factors    influencing    life    of 

trees,  24 

New  England,  2,  60,  76 
Nursery  practice,  45,  48,  49 

Odor  of  wood,  197 

Owner  of  woodlot,  damage  by,  135 

Pith  rays,  17 
Plantations,  58 

mixed,  58 
Planting,  45,  48 

cost  of,  55 

how  to  plant,  53 

spacing  for,  52,  53 

time  of,  51 
Poles,  147 

converter,  147 
Portable  sawmill,  159 
Practicum  or  laboratory  exercises, 

207 

Prairies,  42,  60,  65,  76 
Preservative  treatment,  62 
Products  of  the  woodlot,  145 

estimating,  180,  184,  210 
Protection,  erosion,  8 

fire,  132 

storms,  41 

water  supply,  48 
Pruning,  artificial,  106 

natural,  39 
Pulpwood,  170 

Relation  of  Farm  Forestry  to  General 

Forestry,  2 

Rejuvenating  worn  out  lands,  8 
Reproduction,  210 

advance,  102 

artificial,  42 


Reproduction  by  sprouts,  23 

by  suckers,  23 

natural,  42 

vegetative  method  of,  23 
Respiration,  13,  20 
Rodents,  47 

Root  development,  region  of,  32 
Root  systems,  n,  13,  32 
Roots,  10 
Rotation,  140,  154 

Sample  plots,  210 
Sap, 12 

season  for  maple  sap,  124 
Sapwood,  17 
Sawlogs,  145 

Sawmill  (portable),  159,  210 
Scaling  logs,  147 
Second  growth,  34 
Seed,  15,  23,  26,  42,  44 

collection  of,  46 

freezing  of ,  47 

production  of,  22,  40 

selection  of,  46 

storing  of,  44,  47,  48 

stratifying  of,  47 

time  of  ripening,  46 

vitality  of,  47 

years,  12 

Seed  tree  method,  101 
Seeding,  43,  44 

in  strips,  44 
Seedlings,  26,  31,  45,  50 

evergreen,  50 

mixture,  60 

planting  direct,  45 
Seed  spots,  44 
Selection  system,  117 
Shelter  belts,  7 ,  68 
Shelterwood  system,  102 
Site,  factors  of,  24 


240 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Soil,  cultivation  of,  104 

depth  of,  in  planting,  49 

fertile,  5 

mineral,  43 

moisture,  26 

preparation  of,  43,  51 
Sprouts,  15,  23,  42 

caring  for  sprout  woodlot,  114 

method  of  management,  97 

sprout  forest,  34 
Spruce  region,  62 
Squirrels,  23,  46 
Stem  of  tree,  1 2 
Storms,  135 
Strength  of  wood,  193 
Strip  system,  199 
Structure  of  wood,  16,  188 
Stumpage  value  of  timber,  164 
Suckers,  23 

Tanning,  152 
Taste  of  wood,  197 
Taxes,  7,  141 
Tending  Nursery,  49 
Thinnings,  105,  107 

frequency  of,  109 

subsequent  thinnings,  108 

to  improve  character  of  woodlot, 

no 

Ties,  cost  of  production,  161 
Tolerance,  26 
Toughness  of  wood,  196 
Transpiration,  13,  20 
Transplants,  59 
Treating  posts,  62 
Tree,  classification  of,  15 

codominate,  38 

dead,  112 

defective,  in 

diseased,  in 

dominant,  30,  38,  108 


Tree,  intermediate,  30,  38 

large,  limby,  in 

life  history,  36 

misshapen,  in 

nursery,  46 

reproduce,  22,  23 

spacing  of,  52 

stag  headed,  in 

suppressed,  30,  38 

tropical,  19 

weed,  112 
Tree  diseases,  1 26 
Trunk,  12 
United  States  Forest  Service,  186 

bulletins,  217 

circulars,  218 
Undergrowth,  30 

Use  of  trees  native  to  a  region,  57 
Use  of  foreign  trees,  58 


Value  of  farm  woodlot,  4,  5 
esthetic  value,  9 

Volume  of  a  tree,  175 

Volume  table,  177 
beech  in  cubic  feet,  225 
chestnut  in  board  feet,  227 
chestnut  in  cubic  feet,  226 
hemlock  in  board  feet,  224 
red,  black,  and  scarlet  oak,  board 
feet,  229 
cubic  feet,  228 

red  or  Norway  pine,  board  feet,  222 
second  growth  yellow  poplar,  233 
spruce,  board  feet,  222 

cubic  feet,  223 

sugar  maple  in  board  feet,  232 
sugar  maple  in  cubic  feet,  232 
white  and  chestnut  oak,  cubic  feet, 

230 

white  oak,  board  feet,  231 
white  pine,  board  feet,  221 


GENERAL  INDEX 


241 


Weight  of  wood,  180 
Wild  stock,  51,  59 

seedlings,  wild,  51 
Windbreak,  7,  68 

influence  of,  69 

species  for,  69 
Wood,  spring,  18 

summer,  18 
Wood  decay,  199 


Woodlot,  i,  2,  5,  6,  26,  33,  34,  210 

care  of,  144,  115,  116 

esthetic  value,  9 

ideal  form,  35        . 

size  of,  139 

worn  out,  119 
White  pine  weevil,  61,  74 

blister  rust,  61,  74 

region,  62 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 


Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


14  1948 


9,'47(A5702sl6)476 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


